Much of this indictment, as we have said, is the offspring of prejudice and temperament. But there was a foundation of truth under the declamation of Juvenal. The higher education of Roman youth had for generations been chiefly in the hands of men of Greek culture, from the days of Ennius and Crates of Mallus, before the third Punic War.(562) The tutor’s old title _literatus_ had early given place to that of _grammaticus_.(563) And, of the long line of famous _grammatici_ commemorated by Suetonius, there are few who were not by origin or culture connected with the Greek east. Most of them had been freedmen of savants or great nobles.(564) Some had actually been bought in the slave market.(565) The profession was generally ill-paid and enjoyed little consideration, and it was often the last resort of those who had failed in other and not more distinguished callings. Orbilius, the master of Horace, had been an attendant in a public office.(566) Others had been pugilists or low actors in pantomime.(567) Q. Remmius Palaemon, whose vices made him infamous in the reign of Tiberius and Claudius, had been a house-slave, and was originally a weaver.(568) He educated himself while attending his young master at school, and by readiness, versatility, and arrogant self-assertion, rose to an income of more than £4000 a year. Sometimes they attained to rank and fortune by being entrusted with the tuition of the imperial children.(569) But the grammarian, to the very end, as a rule never escaped the double stigma of doubtful origin and of poverty. The medical profession, according to the elder Pliny, was a Greek art which was seldom practised by Romans.(570) Julius Caesar, by giving civic rights to physicians from Egypt and Hellenic lands,(571) while he raised the status of the medical calling, also stimulated the immigration of foreign practitioners. The rank and fortune attained by the court physicians of the early Caesars, Antonius Musa, the Stertinii,(572) and others, which almost rivalled the medical successes of our own day, seemed to offer a splendid prize. Yet the profession was generally in low repute.(573) It was long recruited from the ranks of old slaves, and men of the meanest callings. Carpenters and smiths and undertakers flocked into it, often with only a training of six months.(574) Galen found most of his medical brethren utterly illiterate, and recommends them to pay a little attention to grammar in dealing with their patients.(575) They compounded in their own shops, and touted for practice.(576) They called in the aid of spells and witchcraft to reinforce their drugs. We need not believe all the coarse insinuations of Martial against their morality, any more than the sneers of Petronius against their skill. But we are bound to conclude that the profession held a very different place in public esteem from that which it enjoys and deserves in our own time.