A relatively large boat, 16 metres long, had ordinary oars 3 metres long, steering oars of 6 metres, a mast 10 metres high with a yard of 6 metres. The area of the sail was about 60 to 70 square metres, hence it was higher than it was wide. (~Ermann~, p. 639.) In calm weather, which was not infrequent, the vessel was driven by oars or else was towed. The mast was then lowered and wrapped in the sail. In order to attach the rope which connected the vessel with the towing boat, there was used generally a piece of wood set either in the bow alone, or in the bow and the stern: this was the arrangement especially for freight boats. These latter had no rigging, as a rule; they could scarcely make room for a few oarsmen, because the greater part of the boat was occupied by the cabin. As a general rule, small rowboats were used for towing. The art of shipbuilding made a great advance under the middle Empire (B. C. 3200-2100). Except for the small papyrus boat, vessels were all propelled by oars and no longer by paddles. The steering oars, which were difficult to handle, were replaced by a single large rudder which could be worked by one man. The rigging was also changed. The upper yard no longer rested _on_ the mast; it was attached thereto in such a way that it could be removed. The sail was less high, its width was increased and the mast became relatively shorter; finally, the double mast, which was so characteristic of the ancient Empire, was replaced by a single mast. [Sidenote: II 8] Under the new Empire, (inclusive of the interregnum of the Hyksos B. C. 2100 to 1600) B. C. 1600 to 730, the art of shipbuilding made no advance. Luxury only increased, especially for the cabins which had already appeared during the time of the middle Empire. The special feature of this period was the increasing width of the sail. This width was so great that the yards had to be made of two pieces joined near the mast. The following figures give an idea of this constant increase of the sail. (~Ermann~, pp. 643 et suiv.) [Sidenote: II 18 etc.] Under the ancient Empire, the mast was 10 metres long and the yard was 6 metres. Under the middle Empire, these lengths were, respectively, 5 and 6 metres, and under the new Empire they were 5 and 10 metres. As the result of this constant increase of the width of the sail, the rigging became more complicated and a top was placed at the head of the mast in order to handle the lines from there. [Sidenote: II 4] The scarceness of wood in Egypt was the cause, from the most distant times, of recourse being had to other materials for the construction of vessels. Papyrus answered this purpose very well. This aquatic plant when cut, dried and made up in bundles, formed the material of which the boats were made. [Sidenote: II 5] The papyri were laid side by side and a whole was made of them by ties placed at close intervals. (~Ermann~, p. 593; ~Nicolas Witsen~, p. 6; _Archéologie navale_, by ~A. Jal~, Vol. I, p. 91.)