When an atom has many electrons, it seems that they are arranged in successive rings round the nucleus, all revolving round it approximately in circles or ellipses. (An ellipse is an oval curve, which may be described as a flattened-out circle.) The chemical properties of the atom depend, almost entirely, upon the outer ring; so does the light that it emits, which is studied by the spectroscope. The inner rings of electrons give rise to X-rays when they are disturbed, and it is chiefly by means of X-rays that their constitution is studied. The nucleus itself is the source of radio-activity. In radium and the other radio-active elements, the nucleus is unstable, and is apt to shoot out little particles with incredible velocity. As the nucleus is what really determines what sort of atom is concerned, i.e. what element the atom belongs to, an atom which has ejected particles in radio-activity has changed its chemical nature, and is no longer the same element as it was before. Radio-activity has only been found among the heaviest atoms, which have the most complex structure. The fact [Pg 7] that it occurs is one of the proofs that the nucleus of such elements has a structure and is complex. Until radio-activity was discovered, no process was known which changed one element into another. Now-a-days, transmutation, the dream of the alchemists, takes place in laboratories. But unfortunately it does not transform the baser metals into gold; it transforms radium, which is infinitely more valuable than gold, into lead—of a sort. The simplest atom is that of hydrogen, which has a simple nucleus and a single electron. Even the one electron is lost when the atom is positively electrified: a positively electrified hydrogen atom consists of a hydrogen nucleus alone. The most complex atom known is that of uranium, which has, in its normal state, 92 electrons revolving round the nucleus, while the nucleus itself probably consists of 238 hydrogen nuclei and 146 electrons. No reason is known why there should not be still more complex atoms, and possibly such atoms may be discovered some day. But all the most complex atoms known are breaking down into simpler ones by radio-activity, so that one may guess that still more complex atoms could not be stable enough to exist in discoverable quantities. [Pg 8]