Individual property in land was almost unknown in America; but feodal and tribal property well understood. Common property of tribes and villages over their territories, was the most usual tenure, modified by wars, conquests, tributes. Individual property existed only for tenements and personal property. Warfares, marriages and funerals were very different in every nation. The weapons of war were clubs, arrows, darts, lances, axes, Macana swords, Sarbacanes or blowing tubes, slings, nooses, thronged balls, &c. as elsewhere. There was a peculiar diplomacy, with heralds, envoys, messengers. Shields, towers, forts, walls, ditches, were used for defence, besides _Estopils_ a peculiar quilted armor. Flags, banners, and standards were known. The calumets, leaves or green feathers, council fires, and white flags were emblems of peace. Alliances and confederations existed from earliest times, also the adoption of tribes and prisoners. Slavery was hardly known; but vassalage much extended over conquered tribes. Dresses and ornaments were quite various. Seal skins used by the Innuit. Deer skins and furs by the tribes of North America. In tropical America many tribes went nearly naked, with a mere apron or pagne of cotton or grass cloth. But the civilized nations were decently clothed with cotton shirts and feather mantles. The _Poncho_ is a true American dress known from Mexico to Chili, hardly known out of America except Polynesia.(4) Women wore long pagnes or gowns. They made cloths of lama wool in Peru; of cotton, hemp, nettles, grass, feathers &c. there and elsewhere; either twisted, plaited or woven. The Peruvians and Chilians had a peculiar loom and plough. Cotton looms were used in Florida, Mexico, and all over South America, even by the Caribs to make hamacs or hanging beds. Among some nations women had the most labor to perform; yet even the men assumed hunting, making canoes, huts, weapons, &c. More civilized tribes worked together in the fields: The proud and warlike employed vassals or slaves. Painting the body or face, was usual among many nations, but not general. It was useful against heat and flies, or was used to inspire love or terror. Ornaments to the head, ears, nose, lips, wrists, legs, &c., were more or less adopted by men and women. The hair was usually worn long; but many tribes cut it in various ways, as a crown or tuft. The beard even when scanty was deemed unbecoming by many tribes, and totally eradicated; but some tribes wore beards. The head was often left uncovered; but hats were worn in the N. W. and Central America, turbans in Paria and Florida, feather crowns in the tropics, _Lautas_ or diadem-bands in Peru and the Andes. Shoes and gloves were unknown; but sandals, leggings, leather clods, and mocassins or slippers of various substances, commonly used; with singular snow shoes of bark in winter by northern tribes. CHAPTER III.