a straight, longer or shorter cone, tapering behind, and gradually expanding towards its mouth in front. The chief objections to the belief that the animal of the _Orthoceras_ was essentially like that of the Pearly Nautilus are--the comparatively small size of the body-chamber, the often contracted aperture of the mouth, and the enormous size of some specimens of the shell. Thus, some _Orthocerata_ have been discovered measuring ten or twelve feet in length, with a diameter of a foot at the larger extremity. These colossal dimensions certainly make it difficult to imagine that the comparatively small body-chamber could have held an animal large enough to move a load so ponderous as its own shell. To some, this difficulty has appeared so great that they prefer to believe that the _Orthoceras_ did not live in its shell at all, but that its shell was an internal skeleton similar to what we shall find to exist in many of the true Cuttle-fishes. There is something to be said in favour of this view, but it would compel us to believe in the existence in Lower Silurian times of Cuttle-fishes fully equal in size to the giant "Kraken" of fable. It need only be added in this connection that the Lower Silurian rocks have yielded the remains of many other Tetrabranchiate Cephalopods besides _Orthoceras_. Some of these belong to _Cyrtoceras_, which only differs from _Orthoceras_ in the bow-shaped form of the shell; others belong to _Phragmoceras_, _Lituites_, &c.; and, lastly; we have true _Nautili_, with their spiral shells, closely resembling the existing Pearly Nautilus. Whilst all the sub-kingdoms of the Invertebrate animals are represented in the Lower Silurian rocks, no traces of Vertebrate animals have ever been discovered in these ancient deposits, unless the so-called "Conodonts" found by Pander in vast numbers in strata of this age [15] in Russia should prove to be really of this nature. These problematical bodies are of microscopic size, and have the form of minute, conical, tooth-shaped spines, with sharp edges, and hollow at the base. Their original discoverer regarded them as the horny teeth of fishes allied to the Lampreys; but Owen came to the conclusion that they probably belonged to Invertebrates. The recent investigation of a vast number of similar but slightly larger bodies, of very various forms, in the Carboniferous rocks of Ohio, has led Professor Newberry to the conclusion that these singular fossils really are, as Pander thought, the teeth of Cyclostomatous fishes. The whole of this difficult question has thus been reopened, and we may yet have to record the first advent of Vertebrate animals in the Lower Silurian.