_Chalk_ is a calcareous rock of a generally soft and pulverulent texture, and with an earthy fracture. It varies in its purity, being sometimes almost wholly composed of carbonate of lime, and at other times more or less intermixed with foreign matter. Though usually soft and readily reducible to powder, chalk is occasionally, as in the north of Ireland, tolerably hard and compact; but it never assumes the crystalline aspect and stony density of limestone, except it be in immediate contact with some mass of igneous rock. By means of the microscope, the true nature and mode of formation of chalk can be determined with the greatest ease. In the case of the harder varieties, the examination can be conducted by means of slices ground down to a thinness sufficient to render them transparent; but in the softer kinds the rock must be disintegrated under water, and the _débris_ examined microscopically. When investigated by either of these methods, chalk is found to be a genuine organic rock, being composed of the shells or hard parts of innumerable marine animals of different kinds, some entire, some fragmentary, cemented together by a matrix of very finely granular carbonate of lime. Foremost amongst the animal remains which so largely compose chalk are the shells of the minute creatures which will be subsequently spoken of under the name of _Foraminifera_ (fig. 7), and which, in spite of their microscopic dimensions, play a more important part in the process of lime-making than perhaps any other of the larger inhabitants of the ocean. [Illustration: Fig. 7.--Section of Gravesend Chalk, examined by transmitted light and highly magnified. Besides the entire shells of _Globigerina_, _Rotalia_, and _Textularia_, numerous detached chambers of _Globigerina_ are seen. (Original.)]