John Whitaker, another eighteenth century binder, went a step further, and drew designs upon his calf bindings with pen or brush. Some of these are very effective, but as a rule they are now showing the effects of time, the original darkest places, where the acid has been most freely applied, suffering first, and showing the pale calf underneath. But a fine specimen of Whitaker’s work is much to be prized. He also used the “Etruscan” style. He had many imitators, but whereas Whitaker’s bindings are generally ornamented with figure drawings, the imitators as a rule preferred easier subjects--ruins or landscapes. Calf with the rough side outwards, like brown velvet, was used in England from the seventeenth to the nineteenth century, sometimes tooled in blind and sometimes in gold. Vellum was used at Little Gidding. One such book is covered in vellum painted orange colour and overlaid with openwork designs cut in white vellum. It is a harmony of the Gospels. The centre design is circular, and the corners have quarter circles. They are all helped with a little gold tooling. In the sixteenth and seventeenth centuries several small French and Dutch books were prettily ornamented with vellum cut in openwork patterns. Underneath the open places bits of coloured silk are laid. They are dainty but not very successful, as small edges and points of the vellum are apt to curl up and catch. James Edwards, of Halifax, invented a curious way of making vellum transparent, and patented it in 1785. The vellum had to be soaked in pearlash and subjected to various processes, pressure among them, and cut very thin indeed, so as to be more like goldbeater’s skin than anything else. Then the books were covered with fine white paper and painted, generally in monotone, but sometimes in colour, and over this painting the transparent vellum was skilfully fixed. The result is that, except when the thin vellum is cracked or seen through, the painting underneath is as fresh as ever it was; but it is to be presumed that there is not much wearing strength in Edwards’ vellum, chiefly because of its extreme thinness. But as a rule any fine examples of his work, especially as they look dainty and precious, have always been well kept and highly valued, and are in good and clean condition. Some modern binders have essayed Edwards’ plan with a certain measure of success.