[Illustration: _When the time comes for applying decoration to a binding, the bookbinder—here using a single-fillet roll—can exercise his artistic imagination or follow a traditional pattern._] _Materials_ printed or blank paper (the contents of the book) decorative paper for fly-leaves long-fibre tissue for mending torn pages hemp cord or leather thongs for crossbands linen thread for sewing silk thread for headbands pasteboard or milled board calfskin for outer cover piece of morocco for label leather dressing gold leaf animal glue wheat paste vinegar egg white _Tools & Equipment_ stitching frame paring stone gluepot pastepot water basins laying presses trimming press and plough press boards bone folder skiving knife and other knives scissors needles stone or lead weights paste and glue brushes metal straightedge backing hammer awl knife and cushion for gold leaf brass alphabet stamps brass decorative stamps brass decorative rolls heater for gluepot and brass tools The printer’s job was done when the flat sheets of paper came off his press, each sheet containing four or more printed pages arranged so that folding would bring the pages into proper sequence. The binder’s first task was to fold the sheets into “signatures” of four, eight, twelve, or sixteen pages. Sheets folded once—into two leaves, a four-page signature—made a large-format book called a “folio.” Two folds in each sheet made eight-page signatures and “quarto” books. Three folds gave “octavo” volumes of sixteen-page signatures. A different arrangement of folds produced twelve pages in a signature and a “duodecimo” book. For any number of folds, however, a bone or ivory folder—a thin, smooth blade—was essential for rapid and accurate work. And it came in handy for a number of other binding operations, too. After he had folded all the printed sheets, the binder gathered a full set of signatures in the proper order to make the book. On his stitching frame—which was simply a four-piece vertical framework, the upper crosspiece adjustable in height—he stretched four to six leather thongs or pieces of hemp cord. With needle and strong linen thread he then stitched the signatures, one after another, through their center folds to each of the crossbands. The sewing frame held them parallel to each other and at right angles to the pages. These bands gave bound books their flexibility and created the ridges across the spine characteristic of most of them. The stitch used in sewing the signatures to the bands was about as simple as could be, but it cannot be duplicated by any machine yet devised. The crossbands and the stitching together were the keys to the all-but-everlasting durability and the flat opening of the well-made book.