First we have the Wisdom of Ben-Sira or Ecclesiasticus. Ben-Sira was an orthodox Jew; but in spite of this he betrays in his book the influence that Greek culture had upon him, and is thus an interesting example of the way in which the Hellenistic spirit worked upon men unconsciously. He wrote his book with the purpose, among others, of demonstrating the superiority of Jewish over Greek wisdom, so that from this point of view Ecclesiasticus may be regarded as an apologetic work. The traces of Hellenistic influence in this book are to be found in general conception rather than in definite form; for example, the identification of virtue with knowledge is a distinctly Hellenistic _trait_, and is treated in this book as axiomatic. No longer are divine and human wisdom looked upon as though opposed the one to the other, as had been the case in days gone by; Ben-Sira teaches, and this is characteristic of the Wisdom literature generally, that wisdom is the one thing of all others which is indispensable to him who would lead a godly life. That there is no opposition between divine and human wisdom was a doctrine for which Ben-Sira was indebted, whether directly or indirectly is not the point, to the influence of Hellenism. In this book the evil of wickedness is represented as lying in the fact that wickedness is folly, and therefore essentially opposed to Wisdom; on the other hand, the Jews as a body were faithful to the Torah, or Law, whose ordinances were binding because it was the revealed will of God; therefore, in order to reconcile this traditional teaching with the newer teaching that Wisdom is man’s main requirement, Wisdom became identified with the Torah: “the fear of the Lord [i.e., the observance of the Torah] is the beginning [i.e., the highest form] of Wisdom.” This is the foundation-stone of the Jewish Wisdom literature; and it formed the reconciling link between Judaism and Hellenism in this domain.[115] This identification is nowhere more evident than in Ecclesiasticus; throughout Ben-Sira inculcates the need of observing the commandments of the Law which is man’s highest wisdom, but the Law is the expression of the divine wisdom; so that he truly says: If thou desire wisdom keep the commandments, And the Lord will give her freely unto thee (i. 26). Further, the existence of the influence of Greek philosophy among some of the cultured Jews of Palestine is reflected in the book in that Ben-Sira controverts the fatalistic philosophy of the Stoics; see, for example, such a passage as the following: Say not, “From God is my transgression”; For that which He hateth made He not. Say not, “It is He that made me to stumble,” For there is no need of evil men (xv. 11, 12).