When it _is_ mined, this natural resource can make its principal contribution to social memory by enriching wisdom. We have a tendency to speak of the “lessons” of history, as though they were immutable—I do this as much as anyone—but I realize that in a literal sense this is impossible. One can never recreate, in every detail and particular, the exact circumstances of a past event. History can never _exactly_ repeat itself, and so its so-called lessons cannot be applied blindly or automatically. But if history doesn’t repeat itself it does, in the words of Herman Kahn, paraphrase itself. Kahn, incidentally, is a scientist and not a historian, but he, like Toynbee and other historians, recognizes that human and institutional relationships in modern times can often bear a close resemblance to events of the past. One can discern many parallel patterns in history, and both trends and specific events are often directly comparable between these patterns. The rise and fall of nations and dynasties, for instance. And since human reactions to circumstances and stimuli are not ever likely to change radically, it is easy to note danger signals from certain circumstances in related patterns of events, and to see what kinds of actions have been successful in certain circumstances in the past, and which have failed, in similar patterns. Thus, while rejecting the idea that history teaches us lessons from the past, I am convinced that history will widen our horizons, revealing new perspective, providing insights, and generally enriching wisdom in using good judgment in dealing with the present. There is still one caution, however. If there is _any_ immutable lesson which history teaches, it is that no quantity of insights can ever replace or substitute for good judgement or the basic intellectual capacity which experience transforms into wisdom. I have tried to indicate what I think the nature of history is, and in the process I have given you some very general thoughts about the use and utility of history. I would like to pursue this question of uses of history a bit further. What really do any of us have in mind in speaking of the “Uses of History?” Is it history for the enrichment of one’s life? For the lessons (so-called) to be gained from experience? For developing patriotism or a sense of one’s heritage? For making money? At this point it might be useful to recall that a number of ancient and not-so-ancient philosophers have commented on the value and importance of history. Let me simply refresh your memory on four that I happen to like: _Polybius_: For it is history and history alone, which will mature our judgment and prepare us to take right views, whatever may be the crisis or the posture of affairs. _Shakespeare_: The past is prologue. _Santayana_: Those who cannot remember the past are condemned to repeat it.