But the main theme of the Chinese drama, as of all drama, is the human side of life. The stage is naturally enough a mirror in which we can see the Chinese as they see themselves. They present themselves not as the wise men of the East that some idealizing travelers would like to make them, nor as the bloodthirsty monsters of the “Limehouse Nights” brand; but as human beings, neither white nor black. We see the corruption of officials, the callousness toward suffering, the selfishness of parents, the eagerness for compromise, and the lack of physical or moral courage; on the other hand the polite civilization with its long tradition, the respect for the past and for learning, the love of poetry and art, the general kindliness and honesty of the people, the love of humor, the extreme democracy in social relations, and the reasonableness and lack of fanaticism. He who would know the Chinese ought to know their stage; and furthermore, he who loves our Middle Ages will derive endless pleasure from its counterpart, the pageant of Chinese life. In my years in the East I received helpful suggestions from many friends in the course of hundreds of visits to the theater. Professor Soong Tsung-faung first introduced me to this fascinating spectacle. Doctor Hu Shih discussed it illuminatingly in conversation and by correspondence. Lucius Porter, Professor of Chinese, Columbia University, 1922-1924, offered helpful suggestions on the manuscript, which he read in part, as did likewise Professor Ferdinand Lessing, formerly of the National University, Peking. Two of my students, Huang Ke-k’ung and Jung Tu-shan, who learned from me about Sophocles and Shakespeare, introduced me in turn to many fine things on the Chinese stage. And finally, I wish to express my appreciation to Mr. Chang Ziang-ling and the many other _p’iao-yu_ (amateurs) for acquainting me with the nonprofessional stage. Thanks are due to the editors of _La Revue de Littérature Comparée_ and of _Asia_ for permission to reprint a number of chapters. A. E. ZUCKER RIVERDALE, MARYLAND, December 7, 1924 [Illustration] CONTENTS PAGE Preface vii CHAPTER 1 Early History 3 2 Formal Development—Yuan Dynasty, 1206-1368 A.D. 19 3 The Ming Dynasty, 1368-1644 A.D. The Pi-Pa-Chi 43 4 The Drama under the Manchus and the Republic—1644 to the Present Day 69 5 Modern Tendencies 108 6 External Aspects of the Chinese Theater 129 7 The Conventions 161