1. One of the very first characteristics that we observe about a city is its age. The difference between European and American cities in this respect is so obvious as to be inescapable. The cities of Western Europe, when compared with some of those of the Orient, again show their relative youth. A detailed study of the city reveals this important conservative influence of the early experiences of a city. Streets, walls, names, and the tradition that has grown up through centuries of existence leave their indelible impress upon the city as we find it today. Experienced observers are able to distinguish cities belonging to one historical period from those of another by their appearance, just as they are able to differentiate between the cities of adjoining countries. These differences show themselves not only in a dominant type of architecture, but also in general atmosphere, the mode of life of the inhabitants, and the activities that find expression in the life of the people. Fleure, Herbert John. “Some Types of Cities in Temperate Europe,” _Geog. Rev._, X, No. 6 (1920), 357–74. Traces the historical influences on the character of cities. (II; III, 2, 3, 5, 6.) ——. _Human Geography in Western Europe: A Study in Appreciation_ (London, 1919). (III.) Fraser, E. “Our Foreign Cities,” _Sat. Eve. Post_, CXCVI (August 25, 1923), 14–15. The background of its inhabitants gives the city its dominant atmosphere. (V, 3; VII, 2, 3.) Gamble, Sidney D. _Peking: A Social Study_ (New York, 1921). A survey of an oriental city. Incidentally reveals a strange variety of the modern city. (II; III, 4, 6; IV, 3; V; VI; VII; VIII; IX, 3.) Hanslik, Erwin. _Biala: eine deutsche Stadt in Galizien_ (Wien: Teschen und Leipzig, 1909). The persistence of a historical type in a changing environment. (III, 6.) Homburg, F. “Names of Cities,” _Jour. Geog._, XV (September, 1916), 17–23. Rhodes, Harrison. _American Towns and People_ (New York, 1920). Uhde-Bernays, Herman. _Rothenburg of der Tauber_ (Leipzig, 1922). One of a series of volumes on “cities of culture.” The persistence of the historical influences on the atmosphere of cities. (III, 6.) 2. The means of communication that are in use at any given period in history determine the location of human settlements. For this reason the dominant location of the ancient and medieval city was on the seacoast or near a navigable body of water. The founding and the development of cities still depends on their location with reference to the means of communication in use and the consequent accessibility of the region. The coming of the railroads made large inland cities possible. Settlements located favorably along the seacoast or along an important river or lake enjoy a natural advantage which has an important bearing on their growth. Location is an important competitive element which produces fundamental types.