[1] On account of the poisonous character of this and other vapors, the vessel containing a substance whose odor one wishes to test is not brought to the nose, but a little of the vapor is carefully wafted towards one by a motion of the hand, the vapor being thus greatly diluted with air. [2] We owe the first modern scientific treatment of the principles of Analytical Chemistry to Ostwald's ‹Wissenschaftliche Grundlagen der analytischen Chemie›, 1894. [p008] CHAPTER II «OSMOTIC PRESSURE AND THE THEORY OF SOLUTION I» If a concentrated solution of a substance like sugar or cupric nitrate is allowed to flow into a cylinder of water (‹exp.› with cupric nitrate), we find that the outside forces—gravity—tend to draw the solution, whose specific gravity is greater than that of water, to the bottom of the cylinder. In this method of proceeding there is some inevitable mixing of the solution with the solvent, as the result of friction, but the main portion of the deep blue solution is drawn to the bottom of the vessel and forms a blue layer under the colorless water. A much sharper line of separation may be obtained by allowing the cupric nitrate solution to enter a cylinder of water from under the water (see Fig. 1), the great density of the nitrate solution causing it to displace the water without perceptible mixing of the two liquids (‹exp.›). If these vessels are left at rest, it may be noted, from day to day, that the copper nitrate diffuses further and further into the pure solvent, and careful examination would show that the solvent, in turn, diffuses also into the copper nitrate solution. The process is a very slow one, but it will continue until a solution of ‹uniform concentration› is reached, and this will be the case, whatever the shape of the vessel may be. If, for the moment, only the copper nitrate be considered—and what we are developing for the copper nitrate may be applied equally well, ‹mutatis mutandis›, to the diffusion of water into the copper nitrate solution—it is obvious then that copper nitrate in solution ‹diffuses in all directions›, even against the force of gravity, and it is plain also, that any object, resisting or arresting such a motion of material particles, must have a force or pressure exerted upon it. Whatever the ultimate [p009] cause of the motion, whether it is the result of inherent molecular velocities of the dissolved copper nitrate, or of an attraction between the solute and the solvent, or both, it is inevitable that a pressure must result from the impact of the moving solute against the solvent.[3] [Illustration: FIG. 1.]