Four other epidemics similar to that of 1510 appeared in the sixteenth century, two which were quite general in the years 1557 and 1580, and two less extensively prevalent in the years 1551 and 1564[477]. Of the two former we possess accurate descriptions; it will therefore aid us in forming a correct judgment respecting the influenza of 1510, if we here take a review of these also, since the most experienced contemporaries classed all these disorders together as of a similar kind. During the dry unfavourable summer of 1557, invalids were suddenly seized with hoarseness and oppression at the chest, accompanied with a pressure on the head, and followed by shivering and such a violent cough, that they thought they should be suffocated, especially during the night. This cough was dry at first, but about the seventh day, or even later, an abundant secretion took place either of thick mucus or of thin frothy fluid. Upon this the cough somewhat abated, and the breathing became freer. During the whole course of the disorder, however, patients complained of insufferable languor, loss of strength, want of appetite and even nausea at the sight of food, restlessness and want of sleep. The malady ended in most cases in abundant perspiration, but occasionally in diarrhœa. Rich and poor, people of every occupation and of all ages, were seized with this disease in whole crowds simultaneously, and it passed easily from a single case to a whole household. On this occasion death rarely occurred, except in children who had not power to endure the severity of the cough, and medicine was of little avail, either in alleviating the disorder or arresting its destructive course. The already established name of this disease was immediately called to mind again in France. It was not, however, confined to that kingdom, but prevailed as generally, with some considerable varieties of form, in Italy, Germany, Holland, and doubtless over a still wider range of country[478]. The same was the case with the influenza of 1580, which spread over the whole of Europe, and seems to have been less severe; thus bearing a closer resemblance[479] to that of 1831 and 1833, which is still in the recollection of most of our readers from their own experience. A more elaborate research into this very important subject would far surpass the limits of this treatise, for phenomena deeply affecting the whole system of human collective life are here to be considered, which can only become apparent when received as a connected whole, yet we must at least point out the relation which the influenzas bear to the greater epidemics. This is quite apparent; for as catarrhs are not unfrequently the forerunners, accompaniments or sequelæ of important diseases in individual cases[480], excitement of the mucous membrane being often merely an outward sign of more deeply seated commotion, so also are influenzas usually only the _first manifestations, but sometimes also the last remains of extensive