[Footnote 542: Names derived from the German Welf (or Wölf) and Waiblingen; Italianised as Guelfo and Ghibellino. Waiblingen was the name of a castle in the diocese of Augsburg belonging to the Salian or Franconian emperors, the descendants of Conrad the Salic, Welf was a family name of the Dukes of Bavaria and Saxony, who constantly resisted the predominance of the emperors, both of the Franconian and the Hohenstaufen lines. The names seem to have become war-cries in Italy about the end of the twelfth century. In Florence they appear first in 1239. Villari, _Two First Centuries_, p. 181, _note_.] [Footnote 543: Sismondi, _Short History_, p. 81.] [Footnote 544: As to the relations of successive popes in the Dark Ages--each cancelling the acts of his predecessor--see Sismondi, _Républiques_, i, 142; Gregorovius, as last cited, and _passim_.] [Footnote 545: Prof. Butler (_Communes of Lombardy_, p. 231), credits the Italians with having acquired, as a result of the perpetual wars of the cities, "a breadth of view and a vigour of mind unknown among the urban populations of other lands." How can "breadth of view" in politics be ascribed to communities whose unending strifes finally brought them all under despotism?] [Footnote 546: Machiavelli, _Istorie fiorentine_, l. ii. The seven major _arti_ were (1) the judges and notaries; (2) the dealers in French cloths; (3) the money-changers; (4) the wool traders; (5) the physicians and apothecaries; (6) the silk dealers and mercers; and (7) the furriers.] [Footnote 547: Pignotti, _Hist. of Tuscany_, Eng. trans. iii, 260.] [Footnote 548: H. Scherer, _Allgemeine Geschichte des Welthandels_, 1852, i, 337, 338.] [Footnote 549: Cp. Symonds, _Age of the Despots_, ed. 1897, pp. 26-27.] [Footnote 550: Villari, _Two First Centuries_, p. 310; Hallam, _Introd. to Literature of Europe_, ed. 1872, i, 8, 16, 19, 71, 77, 78. But see p. 74 as to the stimulus from Italy in the eleventh century. Cp. Gregorovius, _Geschichte der Stadt Rom_, B. viii, Kap. vii, § i (Bd. iv, 604-605), as to the primitive state of mental life in Rome in the twelfth century, and the resort of young nobles to Paris for education.] [Footnote 551: In the previous edition I accepted the still current statement that Salerno drew its first medical lore from the Saracens. But Dr. Rashdall has, I think, sufficiently shown that there is no basis for the theory (_The Universities in the Middle Ages_, 1895, i, 77-86). Salerno seems rather to have preserved some of the classic lore on which the Saracens also founded. Arabic influence in the Italian schools began in the twelfth century, and was in full force early in the fourteenth, when Salerno was in complete decline (_Id_. p. 85).]