Let us suppose that France, having a larger population than England, required for its annual consumption two million pair of boots, and also that she possessed no other commodities which we required. Under these circumstances there could be no further direct interchange of leather, and France would possess a million pair of upper-leathers beyond our demand. But it is clear that if France could exchange these upper-leathers for the wools or any other produce of Germany which we might require, she would not only gain the additional duration of three months for her own extra million pair of boots, but would also enrich us by the advantage which we should derive from the exchange of the strong hides of England for the produce transmitted to us from Germany. § The general result of all those inquiries of which only the slightest sketch has now been attempted, is that—_the free and unlimited exchange of commodities between nations, contributes to the advantage and the wealth of all_;—that this benefit arises from no sacrifice on the part of one nation for the profit of another; but that the sum of the productive powers of man is by these means, without any increased labour, largely augmented throughout the world;—that this increment is won partly by the suppression of ignorance and fraud, and partly by the united effects of industry, of skill, and of science, in compelling nature to minister to the wants of man. All who admit the truth of these principles, must feel an earnest desire to support every effort which may assist in their dissemination amongst the masses of mankind. Education is the earliest, and the most effective aid; but it must be secular education. It must be the education of the faculties of each child, with reference to the wants of his future course of life. The religion of the uneducated and unenlightened man, even when true, partakes of the nature of superstition, and instruction in religious truth _alone_ will not be enough: his mind must be opened and informed on other subjects also. He who by observation and inquiry has arrived at the conviction that any line of conduct which is dishonest towards his neighbour, will most probably prove unprofitable to himself in this world, will surely have a strong additional motive to guard him in the hour of temptation from those courses which his religion teaches him will incur punishment in a future state. CHAPTER III. OF SOCIETIES. Associations for occasional discussion, of men pursuing the same or similar studies, have long been found advantageous for the inter-communication of the difficulties, the doubts, and the discoveries of students. In more recent times, when each art has gradually connected itself with the sciences on which its success depends, the importance of these meetings has become obvious to the manufacturer, although in this country it may not yet have become apparent to the statesman.