[22] Chiefs are reported by Taplin (Woods, p. 32); J. Dawson, pp. 5 _sqq._ But these statements, especially the latter, seem subject to doubt. Compare Curr, _A.R._, i. pp. 55 and 58. Howitt and his correspondents report chiefs among the Dieri, Tongaranka, Wiimbaio, Theddora, Yuin, Wiradjuri, Gurnditch Mara, Kulin, etc., _Nat. Tr._, pp. 297-320. Compare also Waitz Gerland, p. 790. But the term "Chief" appears somewhat vague; probably it is usually applied to influential individuals, whose importance is due to their personal qualities and not to their social position. The influence of old men, magicians and "doctors," is almost universally reported, and the council made up of them seems to wield the real power in the tribe. Compare Howitt, _Nat. Tr._, pp. 320-326, for some of the above references. [23] See Wheeler, p. 122, where it is said that offences like murder by magic, breaches of the marriage regulations, and the revealing of ceremonial secrets are dealt with by the elders and headmen. The legislative powers of old and influential men is mentioned: Howitt, _Nat. Tr._, pp. 89 _sqq._ (new norms introduced by individuals under alleged supernatural command or vision). Spencer and Gillen, _Nat. Tr._, pp. 12 _sqq._ (important changes in custom, law, organization by individual initiative), _idem_, _Nat. Tr._, p. 324. _Nor. Tr._, pp. 26 _sqq._ (a kind of tribunal formed by old and influential men). Spencer and Gillen, _Nat. Tr._, p. 477 (old men in council assembled decide); p. 490 (Atninga, avenging party, despatched by old men, whenever vengeance is to be taken); pp. 491 (old men discuss and settle matters with an Atninga party). Howitt, _Nat. Tr._, pp. 297, 298 (Council of Pinnaru described); pp. 320 _sqq._ (deliberating in all important matters). [24] For the methods of carrying out justice, _i. e._ for the executive organs, see Wheeler, pp. 131-139, where the "authorized agents" (avenging parties, etc.), regulated fights, expiatory ordeals and blood revenge, methods which, as different forms of carrying out justice, are more or less executions of a sentence and have the character of legal proceedings. See also under the heading "Executive power of tribal councils of old men," in Howitt's _Nat. Tr._, chap. vi. pp. 295 _sqq._--The Pinya party of the Dieri tribe. _Ibid._, pp. 297, 321 and 326.--An atonement of the offence by barter, p. 329. Direct action of magicians, _ibid._ p. 343. Compare also the Kurdaitcha, Illapurinja, and Atninga parties of the Arunta. Spencer and Gillen, _Nat. Tr._, chap. xiii. p. 475. All these parties are more or less under the control of the tribal council of old men.