The old Monarchy in France.--Survivals of free institutions. --Centralised despotism of the Crown.--The Intendant's position and powers.--Evils of the system.--The Government sensitive to criticism but all-pervading.--Class divisions.--The nobles and their privileges.--The ruined nobles of the provinces and the rich nobles of the Court.--The Church, and the great varieties of condition in it.--The Middle Class, its privileges and exemptions.--Usurpations and spirit of the guilds.--Position of the poorest class in town and country.--Peasant owners, farmers and métayers.--Feudal oppression from which the peasant suffered.--Exactions of the Government.--Abuses in the system of taxation.--The Custom-house system and its results.--Increase of vagrancy and disorder.--Isolation of the labourer. CHAPTER II. THE LAST YEARS OF THE ANCIEN RÉGIME 28-54 The intellectual revolt of the eighteenth century.--Repudiation of authority and dogma.--Rise of the new political philosophy.--The literary leaders.--Montesquieu.--Voltaire.--Diderot and the Encyclopaedists.--Defects of their theory.--Helvetius and Holbach.--The Economists.--Morelly.--Rousseau. --Reasons for Rousseau's influence.--The _Contrat Social_, its doctrines and defects.--Universality of the philosophical and humanitarian spirit in Europe.--Its effects upon politics and society in France.--Its effects plainly visible in the Government, in Louis XVI, Turgot and Necker.--The Government begins to undertake large reforms.--Progress of Louis' reign.--Marie Antoinette and Calonne.--The Notables of 1787.--Loménie de Brienne and the struggle with the Parlements.--Resistance to the Government.--The Assembly of Vizille.--Recall of Necker, and summoning of the States-General.--Hesitating policy of the Government.--Rules for the General Election.--Questions as to the numbers of the Tiers-État, and as to the union or separation of the three Orders.--Irresolution of Necker. CHAPTER III. THE EARLY DAYS OF THE REVOLUTION 55-70 Meeting of the States-General.--The Commons insist on the separation of the three Orders.--Deadlock for six weeks.--The Commons constitute themselves the National Assembly on the 17th June.--The Tennis Court Oath.--The Royal Sitting of the 23rd June.--Ascendency of the Court party.--Dismissal of Necker.--Rising in Paris and capture of the Bastille.--Grave disorder in France, and the two main causes of it.--Various motives of the risings in the country.--Complete collapse of the regular authorities. --Spontaneous organisation of the electors.--Unfortunate policy of the Assembly.--Its inexperience and susceptibility. --Abstract discussions of July and August.--The 4th August.--Difficulties of Bailly and Lafayette in Paris.--Fresh causes of discontent there.--The outbreak of the 5th October, and its results.