[1] There is only one good way to do this: cut back all the old wood and work out a new top on which to graft the fine apple scions. CHAPTER II. THE SOIL. If this book is to be of real service, we must be clear about the terms and expressions, so that, though you may know nothing about gardening when you begin to read it, you may know enough to earn a living from the soil when you finish it—and practice a little. Many talk glibly enough about the soil, though few could tell exactly what it means. But market-gardeners must understand it, if they are to live by it. So it will be well to begin with the soil itself. Soil is that thin layer of earth that covers our globe like a blanket, and in which all that plants, beasts and men live upon, grows. If it were washed off, starvation would follow. The scientific explanation of the origin of this blanket, is, that it was formed by the action of heat, cold, water, frost, ice, low forms of vegetable life and tiny animals; sometimes working singly and sometimes all together. It is now established that the most of the face of the earth was once rock which was rubbed, crushed and ground by these forces until this surface layer was made. Then higher forms of life became possible. Not centuries only, but aeons of time, were necessary to accomplish this. Layer upon layer of finely crushed particles were exposed to the action of the air which completed the work the grinding of Nature’s forces had begun. To follow out the story of the development of the soil is a most fascinating study, and if you have time from your other interests, you will be glad that you took it up; for though you may be a good farmer without this knowledge, you will be a better one with it, because you will be more intelligent and sympathetic. The soil-blanket holds within its warm folds all that is necessary for life, and the wonder of it all increases the more we learn about the millions of years and numberless forces employed to bring it to this state of perfection. If Nature has not wearied in her great work, there is poor excuse for the gardener to shirk or neglect the labor necessary to get the best possible results from any given piece of soil. Nobody yet knows what are the best possible results from any given piece of soil; for since new discoveries are being made every year, we can show only what has so far been done with the best knowledge and skill at our disposal. One man in Pennsylvania is selling his soil; not his crop, at $1.50 per bushel to inoculate other ground.