Archeological studies indicate that the earliest known inhabitants of Palo Duro Canyon lived in the canyon from about 10,000 to 5,000 B.C. These early men apparently hunted the bison and now-extinct elephant-like mammoths that roamed the Palo Duro area during the Ice Age of Pleistocene time (_see_ geologic time scale, fig. 6). Their stone weapons and other artifacts have been found in and around the canyon. It is assumed that these primitive people—like those who came later—were attracted by the streams and springs that are found in the canyon and by game that came there to feed. There is also evidence that the Indians took advantage of certain of the canyon’s geologic features. They fashioned tools, weapons, and utensils from the rocks exposed in the canyon and used certain of the shallow caves and rock shelters as their homes. INDIANS OF THE PLAINS Various tribes of Plains Indians of historic times also used Palo Duro Canyon as a camping ground. The presence of these Indians is known from many campsites and burials. In addition, flint chips and stone artifacts, potsherds, ornaments of shell and bone, grinding slabs, stone mortars (fig. 15), and a few pictographs (fig. 3) have provided considerable information about the culture of these people. Among the tribes believed to have frequented the canyon at various times are the Apaches, Cheyennes, Arapahos, Kiowas, and Comanches. However, it is the Comanches who are most closely associated with the Palo Duro area, for the canyon is located near the center of their last homeland. Indeed it was here that the Comanches were finally defeated and driven from this part of the Plains. The battlefield where Colonel Ranald Mackenzie’s troops fought the Comanches is located near the southeast corner of the park (_see_ fig. 7). This skirmish, which took place in 1874, is believed to have been the last major Indian battle in Texas. Although most of the canyon’s archeological sites have been picked over and many of the artifacts removed, important finds are still occasionally reported. Park visitors who make discoveries of this type are urged to report them to a park ranger in order that they might be called to the attention of the proper authorities. ADVENT OF THE WHITE MAN Although the history of Palo Duro Canyon is rich in Indian lore, it was the coming of the white man that heralded the development of the area. Today it is generally believed that Francisco Vasquez de Coronado was the first white man to view the canyon. Coronado and his men are thought to have camped here during the winter of 1541, as they crossed the High Plains in search of the fabled Seven Cities of Cibola. [Illustration: Fig. 2. Place map of Palo Duro Canyon.]