Let us now consider the history of the vegetable kingdom as indicated in the few notes in the right-hand column of the table. The most general subdivision of plants is into the two great series of Cryptogams, or those which have no manifest flowers, and produce minute spores instead of seeds; and Phænogams, or those which possess flowers and produce seeds containing an embryo of the future plant. The Cryptogams may be subdivided into the following three groups: 1. _Thallogens_, cellular plants not distinctly distinguishable into stem and leaf. These are the Fungi, the Lichens, and the Algæ, or sea-weeds. 2. _Anogens_, having stem and foliage, but wholly cellular. These are the Mosses and Liverworts. 3. Acrogens, which have long tubular fibres as well as cells in their composition, and thus have the capacity of attaining a more considerable magnitude. These are the Ferns (_Filices_), the Mare's-tails (_Equisetaceæ_), and the Club-mosses (_Lycopodiaceæ_), and a curious little group of aquatic plants called Rhizocarps (_Rhizocarpeæ_). The Phænogams are all vascular, but they differ much in the simplicity or complexity of their flowers or seeds. On this ground they admit of a twofold division: 1. _Gymnosperms_, or those which bear naked seeds not enclosed in fruits. They are the Pines and their allies, and the Cycads. 2. _Angiosperms_, which produce true fruits enclosing the seeds. In this group there are two well-marked subdivisions differing in the structure of the seed and stem. They are the _Endogens_, or inside growers, with seeds having one seed-leaf only, as the grasses and the palms; and the _Exogens_, having outside-growing woody stems, and seeds with two seed-leaves. Most of the ordinary forest-trees of temperate climates belong to this group. On referring to the geological table, it will be seen that there is a certain rough correspondence between the order of rank of plants and the order of their appearance in time. The oldest plants that we certainly know are Algæ, and with these there are plants apparently with the structures of Thallophytes but the habit of trees, and which, for want of a better name, I may call _Protogens_. Plants akin to the Rhizocarps also appear very early. Next in order we find forests in which gigantic Ferns and Lycopods and Mare's-tails predominate, and are associated with pines. Succeeding these we have a reign of Gymnosperms, and in the later formations we find the higher Phænogams dominant. Thus there is an advance in elevation and complexity along with the advance in geological time, but connected with the remarkable fact that in earlier times low groups attain to an elevation unexampled in later times, when their places are occupied with plants of higher type. It is this historical development that we have to trace in the following pages, and it will be the most simple and at the same time the most instructive method to consider it in the order of time. CHAPTER II.