1564 Calvin dies. Théodore de Beze succeeds him as head of the church. Emanuel Philibert, duke of Savoy, supported by the Catholic members of the league, demands back the districts seized by Bern in 1536. The Treaty of Lausanne restores several of them. The counter-Reformation (Catholic reaction) makes itself strongly felt in Switzerland. It is furthered by Carlo Borromeo, archbishop of Milan, and at Lucerne by Ludwig Pfyffer, the “Swiss king.” 1565 The Catholic states of Switzerland ally themselves with Pope Pius IV. 1566 The second Helvetic Confession is published as a basis for union between the Calvinists and the Zurich reformers. 1574 The Catholic reaction advances by the establishment of the Jesuits at Lucerne. 1580 A papal nuncio comes to Lucerne. Borromeo founds at Milan the “Collegium Helveticum” for the education of Swiss priests. 1581 The Capuchins become active in Switzerland for the Catholic reaction. 1582 The Protestants object to the introduction of the Gregorian calendar. 1586 The Golden or Borromean League for support of Catholicism is formed by the seven Catholic members of the confederation (Uri, Schwyz, Unterwalden, Lucerne, Zug, Freiburg, Solothurn). 1588 The reformed states form a separate league with Strasburg. 1597 Appenzell is divided into two parts, “Inner Rhodes,” Catholic, and “Outer Rhodes,” Protestant. THE SEVENTEENTH CENTURY 1602 The Duke of Savoy attempts to get hold of Geneva (the “Escalade”). 1620 Massacre of Protestants in the Valtellina. The valley is won for the Catholics. The Swiss Confederation remains nominally neutral in the Thirty Years’ War, but various members become involved from time to time. 1622 The Austrians conquer the Prätigau. 1624 French troops take the Valtellina. 1629 The Valtellina is taken by the imperial troops. 1632 The Baden Compromise adjusts the religious status of the “common bailiwicks.” 1635 The French once more capture the Valtellina. 1637 George Jenatsch with help of the Spaniards drives the French out of the Valtellina. 1639 The independence of the Grisons is established. 1648 By the Treaty of Westphalia the Swiss Confederation is formally separated from Germany and recognized as independent. Religious divisions continue to cripple the energy of the confederation. Poverty, a result of the Thirty Years’ War, causes discontent. 1653 The Peasants’ War breaks out in Bern, Solothurn, Lucerne, and Bâle because of the oppression of the governing class. The peasants form a league of Sumiswald. They are defeated at Wohlenschwyl. 1654 The Protestant Swiss intercede for the Waldenses. They win the friendship of Oliver Cromwell, who pays great honor to their envoys. 1655 Protestant fugitives from Schwyz find refuge in Zurich.