This period, a period of change, but of comparatively slight geographical change, was followed by a time when, in Italy as in Germany, boundaries were changed, new names were invented or forgotten names revived, when old land-marks were rooted up, and thrones were set up and cast down, with a speed which baffles the chronicler. The first strictly geographical change which was wrought in Italy by the revolutionary wars was a characteristic one. ♦Cispadane Republic, 1796.♦ A _Cispadane Republic_, the first of a number of momentary commonwealths bearing names dug up from the recesses of bygone times, took in the duchy of Modena and the Papal Legations of Romagna. Without exactly following the same boundaries, it answered roughly to the old Exarchate. ♦Transpadane Republic, 1797.♦ Then the French victories over Austria caused the Austrian duchies of Milan and Mantua to become a _Transpadane Republic_. ♦Treaty of Campo Formio, 1797. | Cisalpine Republic.♦ Then Venice was wiped out at Campo Formio, and her Lombard possessions were joined together with the two newly made commonwealths, to form a _Cisalpine Republic_. But the same treaty wrought another change which was more distinctly geographical. ♦Venice surrendered to Austria.♦ Venice and the eastern part of her possessions on the mainland, the old Venetia, the Lombard _Austria_, was now handed over to the modern state which bore the latter name. This change may be looked on as distinctly cutting short the boundaries of Italy. The duchy of Milan in Austrian hands had been an outlying part of the Austrian dominions; but Venetia marches on the older territory of the Austrian house, and was thus more completely severed from Italy. The whole north of the Hadriatic coast thus became Austrian in the modern sense. One Italian commonwealth—for Venice had long counted as Italian—was thus wiped out, and handed over to a foreign king. But elsewhere, at this stage of revolutionary progress, the fashion ran in favour of the creation of local commonwealths. ♦Ligurian Republic, 1797. | Parthenopæan Republic. | Tiberine Republic, 1798-1801.♦ The dominions of Genoa became a _Ligurian Republic_; Naples became a _Parthenopæan Republic_; Rome herself exchanged for a moment the memories of kings, consuls, emperors, and pontiffs to become the head of a _Tiberine Republic_. ♦Piedmont joined to France, 1798-1800.♦ Piedmont was overwhelmed; the greater part was incorporated with France. Some small parts were added to the neighbouring republics, and the king of Sardinia withdrew to his island kingdom. Amid this crowd of new-fangled states and new-fangled names, ancient San Marino still lived on.