Thus far revolutionary Italy followed the example of revolutionary France, and the new states were all at least nominal commonwealths. In the next stage, when France came under the rule of a single man, above all when that single ruler took on him the Imperial title, the tide turned in favour of monarchy. In Rome and Naples it had already turned so in another way. ♦Restoration of the Pope and the King of the Two Sicilies, 1801.♦ By help of the Czar and the Sultan, the new republics vanished, and the old rulers, Pope and King, came back again. And now France herself began to create kingdoms instead of commonwealths. ♦Kingdom of Etruria, 1801-1808.♦ Parma was annexed to France, and its Duke was sent to rule in Tuscany by the title of _King of Etruria_. Presently Italy herself gave her name to a kingdom. ♦Kingdom of Italy, 1805-1814.♦ The Cisalpine republic, further enlarged by Venice and the other territory ceded to Austria at Campo Formio, enlarged also by the _Valtellina_ and the former bishopric of _Trent_ at one end and by the march of _Ancona_ at the other, became the _Kingdom of Italy_. ♦Buonaparte king of Italy.♦ Its King, the first since Charles the Fifth who had worn the Italian crown, was no other than the new ruler of France, the self-styled ‘Emperor.’ But, in Buonaparte’s later distributions of Italian territory, it was not his Italian kingdom, but his French ‘empire’ whose frontiers were extended. ♦Annexation of Liguria, 1805; | of Etruria, 1808. | Grand duchy of Lucca.♦ The Ligurian Republic was annexed; so before long was the new kingdom of Etruria; _Lucca_ meanwhile was made into a grand duchy for the conqueror’s sister. ♦Incorporation of Rome and France, 1809.♦ Lastly, Rome itself, with what was left of the papal dominions, was also incorporated with the French dominion. The work alike of Cæsar and of Charles was wiped out from the Eternal City. The Empire of the Gauls, which Civilis had dreamed of more than seventeen centuries before, had come at last. The fate of the remainder of the peninsula had been already sealed before Rome became French. The kingdom of the Two Sicilies fell asunder. The Bourbon king kept his island, as the Savoyard king kept his. ♦Kingdoms of Naples and Sicily, 1806. | 1809. | _Stati degli Presidi._♦ The continental kingdom passed, as a _Kingdom of Naples_, first to Joseph Buonaparte, and then to Joachim Murat. ♦Benevento.♦ But the outlying Tuscan possessions of the Sicilian crown had already passed to France, and _Benevento_, the outlying papal possession in the heart of the kingdom, became a separate principality. ♦Italy under French dominion.♦