marriage, this and that treaty, is surely an anachronism on the face of modern Europe. Germany and Italy are nations as well as powers. Austria, changed from the _Austria_ of Germany into the _Neustria_ of Hungary, is simply a name without a meaning. * * * * * We have thus gone through the geographical changes of the three Imperial kingdoms, and of the states and powers which were formed by parts of those kingdoms falling away, and in some cases uniting themselves with lands beyond the Empire. They have all to some extent kept a common history down to our own time. We have now to turn to another land which parted off from the Empire in like manner, but which parted off so early as to become a wholly separate and rival land, with an altogether independent history of its own. FOOTNOTES: [12] Unless we except the small part of Flanders held by the Confederation. [13] On the marks, see Waitz, _Deutsche Verfassungsgeschichten_, vii. 62, et seq. [14] No influence was more powerful for this end than the _Zollverein_ or customs union, which gradually united most of the German states for certain purposes. But as it did not affect the boundaries or the governments of sovereign states, it hardly concerns geography. Neither do the strivings after more perfect union in 1848 and the following years. [15] Compare the mention of Rudolf in the letter of Cnut, on his Roman Pilgrimage, in Florence of Worcester, 1031. He is there ‘Rodulphus rex, qui maxime ipsarum clausurarum dominatur.’ [16] That Aosta was strictly Burgundian appears from the ‘Divisio Imperii, 806’ (Pertz, Leges, i. 141), where Italy is granted whole to Pippin, Burgundy is divided between Charles and Lewis; but it is provided that both Charles and Lewis shall have success to Italy, ‘Karolus per vallem Augustanam quæ ad regnum ejus pertinet.’ The Divisio Imperii of 839 is still plainer (Pertz, Leges, i. 373, Scriptores, i. 434). There the one share takes in ‘Regnum Italiæ partemque Burgundiæ, id est, vallem Augustanam,’ and certain other districts. So Einhard (Vita Karoli, 15) excludes Aosta from Italy. ‘Italia tota, quæ ab Augusta Prætoria usque in Calabriam inferiorem, in qua Græcorum et Beneventanorum constat esse confinia, porrigitur.’ As Calabria was not part of Italy in this sense, so neither was Aosta. [17] See Waitz, Deutsche Verfassungsgeschichte, iv. 73. CHAPTER IX. THE KINGDOM OF FRANCE. ♦Origin and growth of France.♦