2. Logic introduced a new element into this controversy,—viz. Qiyas or Analogy. There had been, of course, stray applications of Qiyas, even in earlier times; but, to lay down Qiyas as a principle, a foundation or a source of law,—presupposed the influence of scientific reflection. Although the terms Raʼy and Qiyas may be used as synonyms, yet there is in the latter term, less suggestion of the presence and operation of individual predilection than there is in Raʼy. The more one grew accustomed to employ Qiyas in grammatical and logical researches, the more readily could he include this principle in the institutes of jurisprudence, whether by way of reasoning from one instance to another, or from the majority of instances to the remainder (i.e. analogically), or by way of seeking rather for some common ground governing various cases, from which the conduct proper in a particular case might be deduced (i.e. syllogistically) [9]. The application of Qiyas appears to have come into use, first and most extensively, in the Hanifite school, but afterwards also in the school of Shafii,—though with a more limited range. In connection therewith, the question—whether language was capable of expressing the Universal, or could merely denote the Particular—became important for ethical doctrine. The logical principle of Qiyas never attained to great repute. Much more emphasis was laid,—next to the Koran and the Sunna, the historic foundations of the Law—, upon the Idjma, that is, the Consensus of the Congregation of the faithful. The Consensus of the Congregation or, practically, of the most influential learned men in it,—who may be compared to the fathers and teachers of the Catholic Church,—is the Dogmatical principle, which, contested only by a few, has proved the most important instrument in establishing the Muslim Ethical System. Theory, however, continues to assign a certain subordinate place to Qiyas, as a fourth source of moral guidance, after Koran, Sunna and Idjma. 3. The Muslim Ethical System (al-fiqh = ‘the knowledge’) take into account the entire life of the believer, for whom the Faith itself is the first of all duties. Like every innovation the system at first encountered violent opposition:—commandment was now turned into doctrinal theory, and believing obedience into abstruse pursuit of knowledge: that called for protestation alike from plain pious people and from wise statesmen. But gradually the ‘knowing’ men or men learned in the Law (ulamā, or in the West, faqihs) were recognized as the true heirs of the prophets. The Ethical system was developed before the Doctrinal, and it has been able to hold the leading position up to the present day. Nearly every Muslim knows something of it, seeing it is part of a good religious upbringing. According to the great Church-father Gazali, ‘the Fiqh’ is the daily bread of believing souls, while the Doctrine is only valuable as a Medicine for the sick.