The Merovingian kings who conquered Ancient Gaul in 496 were the first of the Germanic rulers to adopt the Roman Catholic religion. All the others were Arians. In the sixth century they treated the Jews kindly; we hear of a Jew named Priscus, a favorite of King Hilperic (561-584), whom that king loved so well that he wished him converted to Christianity. On one occasion Priscus discussed religious problems very freely in the presence of the King, with Bishop Gregory of Tours, and criticized Christian dogmas fearlessly. In spite of the representations of Pope Gregory I, the Frankish kings entrusted the Jews with offices, such as tax collector, and allowed them to deal in Christian slaves. Church councils, however, as early as the fifth century, legislated against social intercourse between Christians and Jews. SPAIN The Visigoths, who ruled over Spain, treated the Jews worse than any other nation at that time. All the mediæval disabilities, such as the seclusion of the Jews in certain quarters and the restriction of their worship, had their origin in that country. Frequently we hear of a law prohibiting the holding of Christian slaves by Jews. Repeatedly Jews were converted by force, and occasionally whole communities expelled. Bishop Isidore of Seville (560-630) wrote a book entitled “Against the Jews,” which was widely read and translated into different languages. His example was imitated in later times. In the Frankish kingdom, Agobard, Archbishop of Lyons (814-840), wrote five books on the Jews, the titles of which show his animus: “On the Insolence of the Jews,” “On the Necessity of Guarding Against Having Company with Jews,” etc. He opposed the law which prohibited the baptism of heathenish slaves owned by Jews and agitated for their social seclusion. Similar was the literary activity of Amolo, Archbishop of Lyons (841-852), who wrote a book against the Jews and dedicated it to Emperor Charles III. Charlemagne (768-814) is reported to have called Kalonymus of Lucca to Mayence as chief rabbi of all the Jews of Germany; but this report is legendary. Equally unauthentic are laws ascribed to Charlemagne, among them the one imposing upon the Jews an ignominious form of oath. A law of Charlemagne’s son Louis (814-840), required the markets to be held on Sundays in order to make it possible for the Jews to attend them. The Jews in those days were chiefly traders, importers of merchandise from foreign lands, and slave dealers, and acted as the pioneers of commerce in the countries of Western and Northern Europe. LITERARY ACTIVITY OF THE PERIOD