opposition at the hands of the popes and for much the same reasons. Effects of the Struggle. When we pass to our final consideration, namely, the effects of these struggles on their participants and upon Europe, we find ourselves face to face with incidents of a most dramatic character. The scene at Canossa is the most familiar of these, but there was also the no less humiliating spectacle later at the portals of St. Mark’s in Venice, when Frederick Barbarossa sought a reconciliation with Alexander III, followed almost a hundred years later by the tragic end of the last of the Hohenstaufen. These events, dramatic as they appear, serve rather to mark the progress of the long struggle than as epitomes of its results. These must be sought in the relative position and influence of the Church and empire in Europe at the end of the period. Although both reached the apogee of their power and influence during this period, the middle of the thirteenth century marks the period of their decline. This decay was more marked at first in the case of the empire, which practically ceased to exist in name. The time, however, was not far distant when the papacy, too, was to enter the valley of humiliation and drink to the dregs the bitter cup which it had put to the lips of its great adversary. “One generation more and the same nation which had sent an army to defend its cause in Italy was to strike it in the face with the iron glove of one of its own subjects, and was then to capture it and hold it, an ignominious tool for political ends during a century more.”[6] These facts, with a more detailed statement of the various symptoms of decay, should be impressed upon the student as the teacher brings the period to a close. Literature. The account of the three phases of the struggle as given by Grant in his “Outlines of European History,” is especially to be recommended for its brevity, clearness, simplicity and comprehensiveness; also Chapter X in Adams’s “Civilization During the Middle Ages,” which summarizes the struggle from a slightly different standpoint. Portraits of the main actors are to be found in Bemont and Monod’s “Medieval Europe from 395 to 1270”; Tout, “Empire and Papacy,” and Emerton, “Medieval Europe” (814-1300). These books are also valuable for their details of the struggle. There is abundant source material in Robinson, Ogg, and Thatcher and McNeal to make clear the attitude of the popes, notably of Gregory VII and the various treaties and compromises which mark the different stages of the struggle. In some cases contemporary accounts are given of the struggle itself, e. g., of the scene at Canossa. In this connection mention might be made of the description of this scene by Dr. Jaeger as an illustration of the narrative method of presentation as employed by the German schoolmaster.[7] FOOTNOTES: [6] Emerton, Medieval Europe, p. 355. [7] Jaeger, The Teaching of History, Appendix, pp. 200-208. English History in the Secondary School