The form and arrangement of these ducts, and the structure of the medullary rays, are the characters on which the scientific botanist relies for the detection of the affinities of the coniferous trees, whose mineralized trunks and branches, in a fragmentary state, are, for the most part, the only relics of these important tribes of the lost floras of the earlier ages of our planet.[136] [136] I know not a more delightful and instructive branch of science for the young and inquiring of both sexes, than this department of Fossil Botany, which the recent improvements in the microscope have rendered so accessible; and yet there are but few cultivators of fossil botany in England! The great value of these data will be shown in the sequel. * * * * * The stems, fruit, and foliage, of Coniferæ, occur in the various fossiliferous deposits, from those containing the earliest traces of terrestrial vegetation to the newest tertiary strata; and a large proportion of the petrified wood found in the British formations belongs to trees of this order. The presence of rows of ducts on the ligneous fibres, which is peculiar to this division of gymnosperms, as we have already explained (_ante_, p. 58), is so easily detected by microscopic examination, that the merest fragment of fossil coniferous wood retaining internal structure, may without difficulty be recognized. The number of rows, and the opposite or alternate arrangement of the areolæ, are characters which, in the living pines and firs, enable us to refer the respective trees to European or exotic forms; but in the fossil coniferous wood, much diversity exists in other not less important points of structure, and for the successful cultivation of this department of fossil botany, works especially devoted to the subject must be consulted. To the English student, Mr. Witham's beautiful volume, "Observations on the Structure of Fossil Vegetables, Edinburgh, 1831," will be found a valuable guide. [Sidenote: FOSSIL CONIFEROUS WOOD.] Fossil Coniferous Wood.--The coniferous wood of the secondary formations of England, belongs for the most part to the Araucarian type: that is, the glands, when in double rows, are placed alternately, as in the Norfolk Island Pines (_Wond._ p. 696), and not side by side, as in the common European species of firs and pines (_Bd._ p. 486). Numerous sections of this kind of fossil wood are figured by Mr. Witham, from specimens obtained from Lennel Braes, on the banks of the Tweed, near Coldstream; and from near Allanbank Mill, in Berwickshire (_Obs. Foss. Veg._ p. 14); a fossil trunk, 40 feet long, discovered in Craigleith Quarry, near Edinburgh, at a depth of 136 feet, possessed the same structure.