[106] It is important to recognize that the _cantilenae_ of the folk and those of the professional singers existed side by side. Both are, I think, implied in the account of the St. William songs quoted above: the folk sung them in choruses and on wake-days, the professional singers in the assemblies of warriors. At any rate, in the next (twelfth) cent. Ordericus Vitalis, vi. 3 (ed. _Soc. de l’Hist. de France_, iii. 5), says of the same Willelmus, ‘Vulgo canitur a ioculatoribus de illo cantilena.’ M. Gautier (ii. 6) will not admit the filiation of the _ioculatores_ to the _scôpas_, and therefore he is led to suppose (i. 78) that the _cantilenae_ and _vulgaria carmina_ were all folk-song up to the end of the tenth cent. and that then the _ioculatores_ got hold of them and lengthened them into _chansons de gestes_. But, as we shall see (p. 34), the Franks certainly had their professional singers as early as Clovis, and these cannot well have sung anything but heroic lays. Therefore the _cantilenae_ and _vulgaria carmina_ of the Merovingian and Carolingian periods may have been either folk-song, or _scôp_-song, or, more probably, both (Gröber, ii. 1. 449). _Cantilena_ really means no more than ‘chant’ of any kind; it includes ecclesiastical chant. So Alcuin uses it (e.g. _Ep._ civ. in Dümmler, ii. 169); and what Gautier, ii. 65, prints as a folk-song _cantilena_ of S. Eulalia is treated by Gröber, ii. 1. 442, as a sequence. [107] Gummere, _G. O._ 260. [108] Grein, i. 1. [109] Grein, i. 278. [110] _Beowulf_, 89, 499, 869, 1064, 1162, 2106, 2259, 2449. [111] William of Malmesbury, _de gestis Pontif. Angl._ (R. S.), 336 ‘quasi artem cantitandi professum, ... sensim inter ludicra verbis scripturarum insertis.’ [112] Grein, ii. 294. [113] Grein, i. 284. A similar poem is _The Sea-farer_ (Grein, i. 290). [114] Cynewulf, _Elene_, 1259 (Grein, ii. 135); _Riddle_ lxxxix (Grein, iii. 1. 183). But A. S. Cook, _The Christ_ (1900), lv, lxxxiii, thinks that Cynewulf was a thane, and denies him the _Riddle_. [115] Cynewulf, _Christ_ (ed. Gollancz), 668; _Gifts of Men_ (Grein, iii. 1. 140); _Fates of Men_ (Grein, iii. 1. 148). [116] William of Malmesbury, _Gesta Reg. Angl._ (R. S.), i. 126, 143. [117] Asserius, _de rebus gestis Alfredi_ (Petrie-Sharp, _Mon. Hist. Brit._ i. 473). Alfred was slow to learn as a boy, but loved ‘Saxonica poemata,’ and remembered them. His first book was a ‘Saxonicum poematicae artis librum,’ and ‘Saxonicos libros recitare et maxime carmina Saxonica memoriter discere non desinebat.’ [118] Haddan-Stubbs, iii. 133 ‘Statuimus atque decernimus ut episcopi vel quicunque ecclesiastici ordinis religiosam vitam professi sunt ... nec citharoedas habeant, vel quaecunque symphoniaca, nec quoscunque iocos vel ludos ante se permittant, quia omnia haec disciplina sanctae ecclesiae sacerdotes fideles suos habere non sinit.’