During the first half of the nineteenth century, Schopenhauer endeavoured to give a presentation of a pessimistic theory, borrowed from Hindoo religions and from the views of contemporary poets, in the form of a rational philosophy. He developed a conception of life according to which “existence is to be regarded as something one is better without, as a kind of mistake which should be remedied when recognised.”[213] According to Schopenhauer existence is wrong, and results from the gratification of unrestrained desire. “If an attempt be made to realise the amount of misery, pain, and evil of all kinds, that the sun shines upon in its daily course, it will be seen how much better it would be were the earth to exhibit as few phenomena of life as the moon, and if the surface of the earth were in a similarly crystallised condition. Human life might equally be interpreted as a useless disturbance of the exquisite tranquillity of nothingness,” the meaning of the disturbance being wrapped in impenetrable mystery.[214] This melancholy state of life was the result of the cosmic process, which has created so much evil, and which finally evolved the human species, capable of feeling and appreciating to the full the pain of the world. The lower animals he regards as happier than man, their senses being less fully developed, and being unconscious of the worst aspects of their existence. In man, pleasure is purely a negation, whereas the sensation of pain is passive, contemplation, a human monopoly, rendering suffering still more unbearable. “Man’s capacity for pain increases far more with the passage of time than does his capacity for enjoyment, and is especially increased by his foreknowledge of death. Animals only fear death from instinct, without having any real knowledge of it, and without having the prospect of it always before their eyes, as is the case with human beings.”[215] Schopenhauer was convinced that happiness should not be regarded as the aim of life. “The greatest mistake we can make,” he said in his principal work,[216] “is to imagine that we are placed here to be happy.” “So long as we continue in this erroneous view which optimistic doctrines serve to foster, the world will continue to seem a mass of contradictions to us.” “It would be nearer the truth to regard pain as the aim of life rather than pleasure.” “The destiny of all human existence seems to be suffering. Life is wrapped about with evil, and cannot be protected from it. Life, at its very beginning, is signalised by tears, its course is fundamentally tragic, and still more tragic is its end. It is impossible to ignore that all this is meant to be.” “Death is the real goal of life. Its attainment brings a solution of all that has gone before.” The prospect and expectation of death, being products of reason, are experienced by men and not by animals. “Only in the case of humanity is the will capable of renouncing and withdrawing from life.”