In the frequent changes of government that occurred during the first ten years of the republic, some of the administrations were of short duration and of little historical importance. President Gamarra was despotic and arbitrary, and aroused the opposition of the more liberal members of Congress, who, led by the deputy from Tacna, Don Francisco de Paula Gonzalez Vigil, openly protested on the floor of the House against the unconstitutional conduct of the chief executive. It was the beginning of a persistent struggle to overcome militarism and to establish the government of Peru on a basis more consistent with the ideals of a modern republic. President Gamarra was in turn succeeded, in 1833, by President Orbegoso, whose administration was disturbed by continuous revolts in consequence of the irregularity of his election, and the jealousy of rival candidates. On the 23rd of January, 1835, General Salaverry, commander of the garrison of Callao, who had been promoted to the rank of brigadier-general for his services in support of President Orbegoso during previous revolts, suddenly declared himself against the government, which he said was dishonored by illegal arrests and acts of injustice. He was a high-minded, though impetuous, young officer, and he won many followers, being able to secure command of the government, which he directed with good purpose and ability; his authority was recognized for several months in all the republic except Arequipa, where Orbegoso had his stronghold. The latter sought the assistance of President Santa Cruz of Bolivia, and the overthrow of Salaverry was accomplished after a series of engagements in which the Bolivian army was repeatedly checked; the battle of Socabaya, which took place on February 7, 1836, brought the struggle to an end, Salaverry being taken prisoner and condemned to be shot. This sentence was carried into effect in the central plaza of Arequipa ten days later. General Santa Cruz then proclaimed the Peru-Bolivian Confederation, which was divided into three states, northern and southern Peru and Bolivia; Orbegoso was made president of northern Peru and General Herrera of southern Peru, while General Santa Cruz became supreme director of the confederation with the powers of a dictator. [Illustration: DON MANUEL PARDO. THE FIRST CIVIL PRESIDENT OF PERU.]