By punishment I do not understand here every suffering inflicted upon an offender in consequence of his offence, but only such suffering as is inflicted upon him in a definite way by, or in the name of, the society of which he is a permanent or temporary member. This definition holds good whatever may be the opinion about the final object of punishment. Whether its purpose is, or is supposed to be, either reformation, or determent, or retribution, its immediate aim is always to cause suffering. {170} We should not call it punishment if the reformation of the criminal were attempted, say, by means of hypnotism. It is a common opinion that punishment, in this sense of the word, is a social institution of comparatively modern origin, which has sprung from, and gradually superseded, the earlier custom of individual or family revenge. This opinion may seem plausible to the student of European and Eastern law, but, as we shall see, the early history of civilised races is apt to give a somewhat erroneous idea of the evolution of punishment. Even among savages public indignation frequently assumes that definite shape which constitutes the difference between punishment and mere condemnation.[42] [Footnote 42: See Steinmetz, _Ethnologische Studien zur ersten Entwicklung der Strafe_, ii. 327 _sqq._; Makarewicz, _Évolution de la peine_, _passim_.] Savage punishment sometimes simply consists in publicly putting the offender to shame. In Greenland the courts of justice were the public assemblies, which at the same time supplied the national sports and entertainments. Here "nith-songs" were used for settling all sorts of crimes or breaches of public order or custom, with the exception of those which could only be expiated by death; by means of cutting capers and singing, the offender was told of his faults, and the opposite virtues were praised to all who were present.[43] The same institution is found, with only incidental differences, among several other tribes within and beyond the Arctic circle.[44] And, knowing the sensitiveness of these peoples, we may assume that the punishment in question is by no means lenient. In Greenland "it now and then happens that some one or other, wounded, perhaps, by a single word from one of his kinsfolk, runs away to the mountains, and is lost for several days at least."[45] And Adair, speaking of the public jesting by which North American Indians used to punish young people who were guilty of petty crimes, says that "they would sooner die by torture, than renew their shame by repeating the actions."[46] [Footnote 43: Rink, _Eskimo Tribes_, p. 24 _sq._ _Idem_, _Greenland_, pp. 141, 150. Cranz, _op. cit._ i. 165 _sq._ Holm, 'Ethnologisk Skizze af Angmagsalikerne,' in _Meddelelser om Grönland_, p. 87.] [Footnote 44: Kane, _Arctic Explorations_, ii. 128 _sq._] [Footnote 45: Nansen, _Eskimo Life_, p. 267 _sq._] [Footnote 46: Adair, _History of the American Indians_, p. 429 _sq._]