[14] See “Handbook to the Mediæval Court,” by M. Digby Wyatt and J. B. Waring. The Horizontal line principle of antique Art was gradually given up, and a marked inclination towards the Vertical line principle took its place. The full change was not yet by any means complete, and it remained for the introduction of the Pointed arch, under Norman influence in England and France, in the 12th century, to effect a gradual revolution in the whole system of construction and ornamentation, until nearly every trace of the preceding style was lost, and another essentially distinct in all its characteristics arose in its stead. [Illustration: Entrance to English Mediæval Court.] As we are now standing before the ecclesiastical architecture of our own country, it may be interesting to notice briefly, and in chronological order, the progress of Pointed architecture in England, and to specify a few of those leading features which serve to distinguish the style of one period from that of another. Prior to our doing this, it will be well briefly to notice the Norman style which preceded the Pointed, and which was extensively practised by the Normans and English in this country, after the successful invasion by William in 1066. Its leading features are extreme solidity, absence of ornament (at its earliest period), semicircular or horse-shoe arches, and the peculiar zigzag mouldings before noted. The buttresses or supports placed against walls to give them strength are broad, but project very little. The pillars are short, massive, and frequently circular, whilst the capitals are usually cubical and channeled in a peculiar manner, sometimes being quite plain, and at others carved with grotesque and symbolic figures and foliage. [Illustration: Side niche of Tintern door.] The Norman lasted until the 13th century, when it made way for the first pointed style, which is known as _Early English_. The arches in this style are lancet-shaped; the pillars consist frequently of small shafts clustering round a circular pier, and are much slighter and taller than the Norman: the capitals are frequently without ornament, being simply plain mouldings. When the capital is carved with foliage, the work is boldly executed. Spires, too, although originating in the later Norman, rose in the Early English high into the air, like landmarks to the people, to point out where they might congregate to worship their Divine Creator. The buttresses are bold, generally rising in diminishing stages, and either terminating in a triangular head or sloping off into the wall. Windows, two or three in number, were often grouped together under a moulded arch, between the point of which and the tops of the windows an intervening space was formed. This space, pierced with one or more openings, gave rise to that most distinctive and beautiful element of the Gothic style--TRACERY.