fleet--Humiliation of Charles--The Dutch the real masters of the seas 286 CHAPTER IX. CHARLES I.--_continued._ THE JURIDICAL CONTROVERSIES. _Mare Liberum_ and _Mare Clausum_--Dawn of international law--Claims to maritime dominion conflict with commercial expansion of period--Opinions of publicists previous to Grotius--De Castro--Vasquius--The _Mare Liberum_ of Grotius--Its origin and object--Arguments of Grotius against appropriation of seas--His later work and opinions--Opponents of _Mare Liberum_--De Freiras--Pacius--Welwood--His _Abridgment of All Sea Lawes_ and _De Dominio Maris_--Arguments for appropriation of sea fisheries--Grotius’ _Defensio_ in reply to Welwood--Other authorities--Thomas Craig--Gerard Malynes--Alberico Gentilis--The 100-mile limit--The rights of the Crown in the foreshores and bed of the sea--Thomas Digges--Sergeant Callis--Chief Justice Coke--Charles desires to establish his rights to the dominion of the seas by “some public writing”--Records searched--Sir John Boroughs’ _Soveraignty of the British Seas_--Its contents and reasoning--Selden’s _Mare Clausum_--Begun at desire of King James--Published in 1635 by the king’s commands--Its importance immediately recognised--The king’s eulogy--The character of _Mare Clausum_--Its facts and arguments--Absolute sovereignty claimed for English crown--Anxiety in Holland--States-General resolve on an official refutation of _Mare Clausum_--Graswinckel’s treatise--Pontanus 338 CHAPTER X. THE PARLIAMENT, THE COMMONWEALTH, AND THE PROTECTORATE. THE FIRST DUTCH WAR.