CHAPTER FOURTEEN _THE REVIVAL IN GALICIA_ During the seventeenth century, there had gradually developed differences in those sections of Ukraine which had remained under Polish control after the Treaty of Andrusivo. This was largely the result of the endless conflict between the Orthodox and the Uniats, and was marked by the steady weakening of the Orthodox, especially after the beginning of the eighteenth century when the great Brotherhood of Lviv formally accepted the Union. In the eastern portions of the Polish controlled territory, the Orthodox still retained considerable, if only negative, power, and it was in those regions that the last revolts against Poland took place. At times the Koliishchina had threatened to spread westward along the Carpathians but the danger was averted and peace was maintained. Then came the divisions of Poland and most of the areas in which the Union had secured an undisputed supremacy passed into the hands of Austria-Hungary. Soon after, the latter seized from Turkey northern Bukovina, which was still largely Orthodox and had formed the northern section of Moldavia, long a storm centre. The Ukrainians living in the Carpathian Mountains formed part of the Kingdom of Hungary. These people had suffered from the vicissitudes of the past centuries and little is known of their early history or of their appearance in the area where they still dwell. In his historical novel, _Zakhar Berkut_, Ivan Franko gives a picture of the early democratic life of these villagers in the time of the Tatar invasions but it is not certain whether or not they ever formed an independent state. In all probability the central authority in these mountain valleys was not well developed in the Middle Ages. The various valleys paid more or less feudal allegiance to the rulers of Ukraine but the mountain passes were closed several months in the year by snow and with the confused conditions in Galicia and the struggles between Poland and Hungary, the region was more or less forgotten. The people were Orthodox and apparently formed part of the see of Peremyshl but the bishops rarely visited them. Education was on a far lower level than anywhere else in Ukraine and the revival of the sixteenth century had little or no effect upon the mountaineers. Hungarian rule, which had been established in the fourteenth century, weighed heavy upon them. Peasants and clergy alike were serfs, illiteracy was widely prevalent and almost the rule, and the physical, economic and intellectual conditions left everything to be desired.