perfected in that of 1874. The distinction which German publicists have introduced into political science between a _Staatenbund_ and a _Bundesstaat_, constituting the two chief forms of union between states, is a very valuable one,--the former word denoting a league or confederation of states; the latter, a state formed by means of a league or confederation. In order to know to which of the two classes a given state belongs, we need to inquire only whether the political body in question has the essential qualities of a state or not. Confederation and federation; both are composite political bodies, and in so far different from mere alliances which form no new state. _Staatenbund_, or confederation, is rather a conglomeration of states than a real state; it retains the character of a contractual combination of states. _Bundesstaat_, or federation, implies the advance from the incomplete and transitional form to the formation of a collective state or union; it is a more highly developed _Staatenbund_, the difference is only one of degree in purpose, form, and powers to carry out the national will. A confederation, by joining several states in a political association, presents at least externally the appearance of one state of an international personality; but yet is not organized into one central state distinct from the particular states. The management of the collective state is left either to some particular state as President (_Vorort_), or to an assembly of delegates and representatives of all the several states. The former was the case with the Greek leagues under the hegemony of Sparta and Athens; the latter with the American Union under the ancient articles of 1778, and the German confederation of 1815. In a federation there are not merely completely organized particular states, each remaining sovereign and independent within the range of such powers as it does not hand over to the federal authority; but there is an independently organized common or central state, that within the range of the powers handed over to it forms a single commonwealth under a government with its own executive, legislative, and judicial branches. The Achæan league was already in some measure such a federal state. This form of state first appears in modern times in the Constitution of the United States adopted in 1787, and subsequently imitated by Switzerland. The Swiss Confederation previous to 1848 joined the members of the league only on such terms and for such purposes as were agreed on, and their common affairs were administered by a federal Diet. Still each Canton remained perfectly independent in all its internal concerns; even keeping the right of separate dealings with foreign governments. There was nothing which could be strictly called a federal government, whose one will makes the constitution, and demands obedience from the minority, even of particular Cantons. The foundation of the Swiss