Thus the movement in Western Ukraine, although it started later, was able to catch up and even to surpass in self-consciousness the movement in Russia but as we have mentioned before, the word Ukraine was always more or less suspicious to the Austro-Hungarian authorities and for a long while the people were compelled to call themselves Ruthenians. Even to the most recent times, the Poles have emphasized this difference between Ruthenians and Ukrainians and have sought to foster a division between the two groups. So have the Hungarians in their domination of Carpatho-Ukraine, where the movement after 1848 languished in the isolated valleys of the Carpathian Mountains. Thus this well-dismembered race finally succeeded in some small degree in establishing spiritual contacts about the middle of the nineteenth century. For the first time in centuries, the scattered groups became aware of their mutual relationships, despite the religious differences. The people in Russian Ukraine were still Orthodox. Those in Austria-Hungary were primarily Uniat but the modern trend toward secular thinking and the diminution of the bitterness of the religious conflicts allowed them to work together. They could have small hope of political freedom and of political union, but there was a profound sense of social solidarity and in the peaceful years of the nineteenth century, the task of education and of social development took precedence over the old dreams of attaining liberty and freedom on the field of battle. CHAPTER TEN IVAN FRANKO In the sixties the writers from Great Ukraine had begun to find shelter in Lviv and to seek opportunities for publishing there which had been denied to them in their native land. Yet, when they reached Galicia, they were passing into another atmosphere and another society. There were some like Kulish who tried to reconcile the Ukrainians and the Poles in the province of Austria-Hungary. There were others as Levitsky, whose works dealt only with the Russian Ukraine and who described the problems there as they saw them with their own eyes. They undoubtedly contributed much to the desire on the part of the people of Western Ukraine to remodel their lives and to commence social and national work. Yet they themselves were not at home in the complicated problems of Austro-Hungarian politics and the different social institutions and they rarely interested themselves in the many questions that were raised by the existence of Vienna and the Hapsburg monarchy and the obligations and possibilities that existed in Western Ukraine as a result of being a part of a great multilingual and confused area.