The decline of the Spanish Colonial Empire (which had reached its highest point under Philip II at the end of the sixteenth century) continued throughout the seventeenth, eighteenth, and early nineteenth century, and was hastened by the misgovernment, corruption, and incessant outbreaks of revolution in Spain itself. One by one by means of revolution, the Spanish-American colonies had gained their independence. The policy of the Holy Alliance and of Metternich was to check the growth of Constitutional government in Europe. King Ferdinand of Spain was in conflict with the constitutional movement, and civil war prevailed. In 1823 France intervened in Spain on behalf of Ferdinand, and French troops entered Madrid. Canning, on behalf of Great Britain, prohibited the conquest by France or her allies of the Spanish colonies, and formally recognized their independence in 1824. Cuba and other islands were the last of the Spanish possessions. During the remainder of the nineteenth century Spain continued periodically to be torn and weakened by internal disturbances. Occasion: In order to quell the revolts in Cuba more effectually the milder policy of Martinez Campos was exchanged in 1897 for the ruthless and brutal rule of General Weyler. The United States were deeply stirred by the torture and starvation of their neighbours. General Weyler was recalled. But when the American cruiser _Maine_ was blown up in the port of Havana, the United States demanded the evacuation of Cuba by Spain. Spain refused. Course of the War: Two Spanish fleets were destroyed in May and July 1898, and American land forces in Cuba, the Philippines, and Porto Rico won those islands with comparatively little struggle. Political Result: By the treaty of peace signed at Paris, December 1898, Spain surrendered practically all her colonies. The Caroline Islands in the Pacific were sold to Germany in 1899. Remarks: This was the last chapter in the extinction of a vast colonial Empire, which was dissolved owing to the spirit of independence in its various states and the bad government in the Mother Country. THE BOER WAR 1881, 1899–1902 Belligerents: Great Britain. The Transvaal and Orange Free State. Cause: The premature annexation of the Transvaal in 1877 was resented by the majority of the Boers. In 1880 a formidable rebellion broke out, a small British force was sent out which met with determined opposition at Laing’s Nek and Ingogo, and on February 27, 1881, was defeated at Majuba Hill. The Boers regained their independence under the suzerainty of Great Britain.