In Wales, and throughout the Midland counties, large quantities of alder timber are consumed in the making of clog soles, which, after being roughly formed in the woodlands where the trees have been felled, are sent by rail to several of the Lancashire towns to be finished off. Throughout Ireland—chiefly the north—large numbers of clog soles, made of alder, are annually employed in the manufacture of cheap boots; indeed, in many parts the making of clogs is quite an industry. The bark of the alder is used in tanning leather, though in much smaller quantities at present than was the case half a century ago, when oak bark fetched as much as £10 a ton, and when none of the chemicals that are now so commonly employed were offered in the market. Excellent gunpowder is made of the wood, said to be second only in quality to that prepared from the dogwood. The young shoots, according to the peculiar way in which they are prepared, are employed in dyeing red, brown, yellow, and black. Alder is generally in good demand at all stages of its growth, and is seldom grown to very large dimensions. For the clogger, turner, or charcoal burner it is of greatest value up to about thirty years’ growth, while by cutting it over at that age a second crop springs rapidly from the stools. The =Birch=.—It is hardly necessary to speak of the hardiness of the birch, for no other native tree, not even the Scotch pine, ascends to such elevations in Britain. The higher the tree ascends the more shrub-like it becomes, until on very exposed rocky sites at great altitudes it hardly exceeds a yard in height. As regards soil, the birch is by no means particular, for we find it succeeding well even on that of a poor rocky or gravelly character. The largest individual specimens always, however, occur at not too high an altitude, and on soil of a light, loamy nature, an abundance of moisture being still further favourable to quick development. For planting on exposed ground for shelter-giving purposes, but particularly where the soil is thin and poor, the birch is a most valuable tree. Its growth is fairly rapid, and it does not suffer to any appreciable extent either from insect or fungoid attacks. As a coppice tree it is also valuable.