This happens in several ways. For example, paying attention to a person increases his morale and self-esteem. This is called the _Hawthorne effect_. "Anyone who has been in therapy can appreciate the gratification that comes from having a competent professional give undivided attention for an hour."[16] Also, the expectation on the part of a therapist that positive results will follow itself can influence a client's attitudes and his belief that he will get better, that emotional suffering will lessen and end. [16] James O. Prochaska, _Systems of Psychotherapy: A Transtheoretical Analysis_ (Homewood, IL: The Dorsey Press, 1979), p. 5. The strength of a client's _belief_ that he _can_ change, that he _can_ improve, is the major single force in psychotherapy. The client has to feel that his belief is _warranted_. Many factors play a role here: the client's education level and the respect he may feel toward the therapist's training and experience; the intangibles of therapy--the therapist's integrity, authenticity or convincingness, the client's sense that he is understood, that the therapist cares, that the therapist himself has learned how to cope with living and can communicate this, etc. Psychotherapy can be successful when this sense of _promise_ is present in therapy sessions. CLIENTS LOOK BACK I know myself better than any doctor can. Ovid If most emotional difficulties are not illnesses at all but problems of living, and if problems of living cannot be treated medically, then the hundreds of evaluative studies of therapeutic effectiveness have been looking for something that simply is not there: an objective standard against which to judge therapeutic {277} success. It makes very little sense to speak of standards in connection with problems of living that come about from demoralization. The only standard we can reasonably appeal to is the subjective judgment of clients themselves, who have experienced periods in therapy. [Therapy] is a purely individual affair and can be measured only in terms of its meaning to the person, child, or adult, of its value, not for happiness, not for virtue, not for social adjustment but for growth and development in terms of a purely individual norm.[17] [17] J. Taft, _The Dynamics of Therapy in a Controlled Relationship_ (New York: Macmillan, 1933), quoted in H. H. Mosak, "Problems in the Definition and Measurement of Success in Psychotherapy," in Wolff and Precker, eds., _Success in Psychotherapy_, p. 7. A few representative and specific evaluations of their experiences in psychotherapy by former clients follow. They are included here not as proof of the effectiveness of psychotherapy, because to search for objective proof in this area is a mistake, but rather as illustrations of different ways people believe themselves to have been helped:[18]