[Illustration: Fig. 44.--Sketch of a mountain range along Skolat Creek, Alaska, showing Tertiary lava beds resting upon deeply eroded tilted limestones and lavas of late Paleozoic (Carboniferous) Age. The present topography has been produced by erosion since the Tertiary lavas flowed out. (After U. S. Geological Survey.)] Especially in Alabama and Texas the Cretaceous system is remarkable for its richness in chalk deposits. In Alabama a widespread formation of late Cretaceous Age, about 1,000 feet thick, contains much nearly pure white chalk, and in Texas a similarly constituted formation of early middle Cretaceous Age is from 1,000 to 5,000 feet thick. These chalk deposits consist almost wholly of carbonate of lime shells or very tiny single-celled animals which accumulated under exceptionally clear sea water which spread over those parts of Alabama and Texas where the chalk now occurs. Here again we have a bit of evidence supporting the fact of very long geologic time. Think of how long it must have taken for the tiny (even microscopic) shells to form a widespread layer of chalk nearly a mile thick! The close of the Cretaceous period, or what is the same, the close of the Mesozoic era, was marked by some of the grandest crustal disturbances in the known history of the earth. In fact, it is not known that the western hemisphere was ever affected by more profound and widespread mountain-making disturbances than those which took place toward the close of the Mesozoic era, and continued into the succeeding Tertiary period. These disturbances were of three kinds: folding of strata, volcanic activity, and renewed uplift of old mountains without folding of the rocks. Greatest of all was the "Rocky Mountain Revolution," during which the thick strata, which accumulated during the Paleozoic and Mesozoic eras over the site of the Rockies, yielded to vigorous deformation when they were more or less folded and dislocated from Alaska to Central America. This was in truth the birth of the Rocky Mountains, although their existing altitude and configuration have, to a very considerable degree, resulted from later uplift and erosion. In the northern United States and southern Canada the Rocky Mountain strata, up to over 40,000 feet thick, were most severely folded and fractured, forming a range which quite certainly was fully 20,000 feet high. In this district a great thrust fault, hundreds of miles long, developed, and rocks as old as the Proterozoic were shoved at least seven miles, and probably as much as twenty miles, westward, over Cretaceous and other rocks much later than the Proterozoic. At the same time the Andes Mountains throughout South America were notably upraised and the rocks folded.