[Illustration: Plate 12.--(_b_) A Twisted Mass of Stratified Archeozoic Limestone Surrounded by Granite in Northern New York. The limestone was enveloped in the granite while it was being forced in molten condition into the earth's crust. (_Photo by the author._)] The Sierra Nevada Range, which originated by intense folding of rocks late in the Jurassic period, underwent profound erosion until about the middle of the Tertiary period, by which time it had been cut down to a range of hills or low mountains. Then the great fault (fracture) previously described began to develop along the eastern side. As a result of many sudden movements along this fault, which is hundreds of miles long, the vast earth block has been tilted westward with a very steep eastern face and a long, more gradual western slope, the crest of the fault block forming the summit of the range. The amount of nearly vertical displacement along this fault has been commonly from 10,000 to 20,000 feet, and, in spite of considerable erosion of the top of the fault block and accumulation of sediment at its eastern base, the modified fault face now usually stands out boldly from 2,000 to 10,000 feet high. As an evidence that this movement of faulting has not yet ceased we may cite the Inyo earthquake of 1872, when there was a sudden renewal of movement of ten to twenty-five feet along this fault for many miles. Since the great Sierra block began to tilt, the many mighty canyons, like Yosemite, Hetch-Hetchy, King's River, and Feather River, have been carved out by the action of streams, in some cases aided by former glaciers. King's River canyon has been sunk to a maximum depth of 6,900 feet in solid granite solely by the erosive action of the river! The Cascade Mountains, too, were reduced to nearly a peneplain condition by late Tertiary time when they began to be rejuvenated by arching or bowing of the surface unaccompanied by great faulting or fracturing, and many canyons, like that of the Columbia River, have since been carved out.