One of the worst impurities in iron ore is phosphorus, which makes iron "cold short," i.e., brittle when cold. Ore for the manufacture of Bessemer steel must contain very little phosphorus (less than 1/1000 of the metallic iron content of the ore). Sulphur as an impurity in the ore tends to make the iron "hot short." Silica (quartz) is bad because it necessitates the use of more lime for flux in the furnace. Iron ores occur in rocks of most of the great geologic ages, but in the United States principally in the pre-Paleozoic and Paleozoic. The United States is by far the greatest producer of iron ore in the world, the output for 1917 having been about 75,288,000 tons, the greatest in the history of this or any other country. This one year's output loaded into cars of 40 tons capacity would have made a train about 15,000 miles long! All but about 5,000,000 tons of this tremendous production was hematite ore. In 1919 the output of iron ore dropped to about 60,000,000 tons. [Illustration: Fig. 80.--Drawing showing details of part of an ore-bearing vein at Pinos Altos, New Mexico. The chalcopyrite and sphalerite are the ores. Somewhat reduced in size. (After Paige, U. S. Geological Survey.)] We shall now very briefly consider several of the greatest iron-mining districts of the United States, giving some idea of the modes of occurrence and origin of the ores. Greatest of all is the Lake Superior region, not far west and south of the lake in Minnesota, Michigan, and Wisconsin. Considerably more than one-half the iron ore mined in the United States comes from the single State of Minnesota, and about one-fourth of it from Michigan. Most of the Minnesota ore by far is obtained from the so-called "Mesaba Range," which in 1917 produced 41,000,000 tons of hematite ore. The ore deposits are there of irregular shape, lying at or near the surface (usually covered only by glacial deposits). None of them extend downward more than a few hundred feet. The soft, high-grade ore is removed by steam shovels in great open pits. In the several districts of northern Michigan and Wisconsin the ores (nearly all hematite) are associated with more or less highly folded rocks at considerable depths. The Lake Superior iron ores all occur in rocks of Archeozoic and Proterozoic Ages. According to the best explanation of their origin the iron of the ores was once part of a sedimentary series of rocks in the form of iron carbonate and silicate, interstratified with layers of a flintlike rock associated with slate, quartzite, etc. After these rocks were raised into land and subjected to weathering the old iron compounds were altered to oxides, mainly hematite, and somewhat concentrated. Further concentration of the ore was caused by dissolving out the flintlike layers of the old rocks.