CHAPTER IX. THE ENLIGHTENMENT IN FRANCE AND GERMANY 203 THE SITUATION IN FRANCE IN THE ENLIGHTENMENT 203 THE ENGLISH INFLUENCE IN FRANCE 206 THE TWO PERIODS OF THE FRENCH ENLIGHTENMENT 207 THE INTELLECTUAL ENLIGHTENMENT (1729–1762)――VOLTAIRE, MONTESQUIEU, AND THE ENCYCLOPÆDISTS 208 VOLTAIRE (1694–1778) 209 THE ENCYCLOPÆDISTS 211 THE SOCIAL ENLIGHTENMENT (1762–1789) 213 ROUSSEAU (1712–1778) 213 THE GERMAN ENLIGHTENMENT (1740–1781) 216 THE INTRODUCTORY PERIOD (1648–1740). ABSOLUTISM 217 1. The Rise of Prussia 218 2. The Early German Literature 219 3. The Pietistic Movement 219 4. The Transformation of Leibnitz’s Rationalism 220 SUMMARY OF THE LITERARY ENLIGHTENMENT OF GERMANY (1740–1781) 223 THE POLITICAL ENLIGHTENMENT OF GERMANY――FREDERICK THE GREAT 224 THE COURSE OF THE GERMAN ENLIGHTENMENT 226 LESSING 228 CHAPTER X. KANT 230 THE CONVERGENCE OF PHILOSOPHICAL INFLUENCES IN GERMANY 230 THE THREE CHARACTERISTICS OF GERMAN PHILOSOPHY 231 THE TWO PERIODS OF GERMAN PHILOSOPHY 232 THE INFLUENCES UPON KANT 233 1. Pietism 233 2. The Leibnitz-Wolffian Philosophy 233 3. The Physics of Newton 234 4. The Humanitarianism of Rousseau 234 5. The Skepticism of Hume 235 THE LIFE AND WRITINGS OF KANT (1724–1804) 235 THE PROBLEM OF KANT 238 THE METHOD OF KANT 239 THE THREEFOLD WORLD OF KANT――SUBJECTIVE STATES, THINGS-IN-THEMSELVES, AND PHENOMENA 240 THE WORLD OF KNOWLEDGE 243 THE PLACE OF SYNTHESIS IN KNOWLEDGE 245 THE JUDGMENTS INDISPENSABLE TO HUMAN KNOWLEDGE 248 THE PROOF OF THE VALIDITY OF HUMAN KNOWLEDGE 252 1. In what does the Validity of Sense-♦Perception consist? 253 2. In what does the Validity of the Understanding consist? 255