3. As a basis for governmental policies and as a means of interpreting literature: the Renaissance idea, e.g., Machiavelli, Petrarch, Boccaccio. 4. As a basis for theological dogma and religious practices: the Reformation idea, e.g., Luther, Melanchthon, and the Jesuits. 5. As a basis for interpreting legal institutions and practices: the idea of the 17th century, e.g., the Jurists. 6. As a foundation for philosophical speculation and a means of discovering the deeper influences that affect humanity and hence influence action and produce events: the idea of the 18th century, e.g., Voltaire and Montesquieu. [Voltaire held that human nature is the same under all circumstances and at all times, and hence sought to judge historical events by abstract universal standards. The "natural man" was his ideal man. Montesquieu, in _The Spirit of the Laws_, sought to show that events in history are but the manifestation of spiritual law, as revealed in conditions of climate, geography, soil, natural resources, racial temperament, etc.] 7. As a foundation for personal reactions, e.g., criticisms, interpretation, moralizing, personal philosophizing, or as mere facts entertainingly told: the idea of the early 19th century. 8. History as science, i.e., as explanatory of existing social institutions, customs, beliefs: the idea of the 20th century. [1] The fundamental purpose of historical writing has ever been the recording of events. In addition, however, different ages have stressed other aims. V. _Some Notable Influences and Persons that have modified the Conception of the Meaning of History in the Last Century._ 1. Romantic School (late 18th century and early 19th century), with its deep reverence for the Middle Ages. Hence sympathetic treatment of history. 2. Herder (1744-1803), with his philosophy of "becoming" or development. Herder sought to show that all events are but the manifestation of a deity striving to work out an ideal universe. Hence all events must be judged by the standards of the time and country in which they appear, i.e., be judged by the characteristics of the age and people affected. 3. Hegel (1770-1831) carried the theory of Herder to more complete conclusions. 4. Niebuhr (1776-1831), "one of the most acute historical critics and philologists of modern times." Niebuhr was among the first to emphasize the need of a critical examination of source material, and of the building up the past out of these data. 5. Ranke, Leopold von (1795-1886). His aim was to set before the reader the entire picture of events "with their causes, relations, and consequences." 6. Guizot, Francois P. G. (1787-1874). His great influence was in extending the scope of history so as to include universal history, not merely national history, or the history of isolated and local events.