Between the pan-Hellenic festivals celebrated in the stadium and hippodrome at Olympia in the time of Pericles, and those public spectacles which crowded the amphitheater and circus of the degenerate Roman world during the first centuries of the Christian era, a greater contrast can be drawn. The chariot races of the Circus Maximus and the gladiatorial combats, the contests of men with beasts, or those of beasts with one another in the Coliseum, reveal the changed type of civilization, and also mark the last stages of athletic professionalism. The charioteer and the gladiator were either prisoners of war, slaves, condemned criminals, or freedmen who adopted the calling from choice. They were trained in special schools, and unless the property of private citizens, were commonly let out by their owners to any person who desired their services. BIBLIOGRAPHY. General works: Besides the standard dictionaries and handbooks of classical antiquities, the “Companion to Latin Studies” edited by J. E. Sandys (Cambridge, England, at the University Press. See especially the sections on Education and the Roman Army), and T. G. Tucker’s “Life in the Roman World of Nero and St. Paul” (New York, The Macmillan Co., 1911). On Roman education: S. S. Laurie’s “Historical Survey of Pre-Christian Education” (second edition. London and New York: Longmans, Green, & Co., 1900. Pp. 301-411 are devoted to the Romans), and A. S. Wilkins’ “Roman Education” (Cambridge, England, at the University Press, 1905). On the Roman army: Col. T. A. Dodge’s “Hannibal: A History of the Art of War among the Carthaginians and Romans down to the Battle of Pydna, 168 B.C.” (Boston and New York: Houghton, Mifflin & Co., 1891), and his “Caesar: A History of the Art of War among the Romans down to the End of the Roman Empire” (Boston and New York, as above, 1892). FOOTNOTES: [3] For details of this period of decline consult chapter eight (Athletics under the Romans) in E. N. Gardiner’s “Greek Athletic Sports and Festivals.” CHAPTER III. THE TEUTONIC INVADERS OF THE ROMAN EMPIRE.