Dichaearchus of Messana, a pupil of Aristotle, described an original paradise, when men lived in accord with nature. In that golden age, they did not depend upon animals for food, but subsisted on fruits. Neither did they have any possessions to arouse hate and strife, until the evil of private property developed, and caused the degeneration of human society.[1035] Ephorus,[1036] a disciple of Isocrates, represented the second tendency. He eulogized the life of the “milk-fed” (γαλακτόφαγοι), barbarian nomads of the north as true to nature and righteous.[1037] Their piety and simple life precluded the social ills that arise from individual ownership,[1038] for their communism even extended to the family, and all composed one brotherhood.[1039] The third tendency is evident in the writings of Isocrates,[1040] Ephorus,[1041] Polybius,[1042] Plutarch,[1043] and was probably common to many other thinkers whose works are no longer extant.[1044] They idealized the ancient Spartan society, as a model of complete communism, which provided full equality and freedom for the citizens. It was free from the evils of luxury, excessive wealth, poverty, civic strife, commerce, and money-greed, a condition where all the citizens were wise, and where the Stoic ideal of independence (αὐτάρκεια) was fully realized.[1045] It was but a step from this to the projection of these bizarre idealizations of the past and of primitive life into the present and future. They took the form of ideal utopias such as that of Zeno,[1046] or of romantic descriptions, purporting to portray ideal conditions as actually existing, such as found their model in Plato’s _Atlantis_.[1047] For a full discussion of this type of literature, the reader may consult Poehlmann’s work.[1048] We need give it only cursory notice here. Theopompus, a pupil of Socrates, described a “Meropian” land.[1049] His aim, however, was probably the entertainment of the reader, rather than social reform, as is evidenced by the fantastic nature of his stories. They picture not only ideal communistic conditions, but also a state of the wicked (πονηρόπολις), and crassly emphasize the alleged free-love of the Etruscans.[1050] The Cimmerian state of Hecataeus, an idealization of the kingdom of the Pharaohs, had a more serious social purpose.[1051] It describes a state in which all conquered lands are equally divided among the citizens, and where landed property cannot be sold. The people are free from greed of gain, civic strife, and all the ills that follow it. The ideal is not the greatest increase of wealth, but the development of the citizens to the highest social ideal.[1052]