Fully to comprehend the march of mammalian development, it thus becomes necessary to reconstruct, at least in outline, the geography of the successive epochs through which the developmental changes have taken place, the connections and separations of land-masses, the rise of mountain ranges, river and lake systems and the like. Equally significant factors in the problem are climatic changes, which have had a profound and far-reaching effect upon the evolution and geographical spread of animals and plants, and the changes in the vegetable world must not be ignored, for, directly or indirectly, animals are dependent upon plants. To one who has paid no attention to questions of this kind, it might well seem an utterly hopeless task to reconstruct the long vanished past, and he would naturally conclude that, at best, only fanciful speculations, with no foundation of real knowledge, could be within our reach. Happily, such is by no means the case. Geology offers the means of a successful attack upon these problems and, although very much remains to be done, much has already been accomplished in elucidating the history, especially in its later periods, with which the story of the mammals is more particularly concerned. It is manifestly impossible to present here a treatise upon the science of Geology, even in outline sketch. Considerations of space are sufficient to forbid any such attempt. Certain things must be taken for granted, the evidence for which may be found in any modern text-book of Geology. For example, it is entirely feasible to establish the mode of formation of almost any rock (aside from certain problematical rocks, which do not enter into our discussion) and to determine whether it was laid down in the sea, or on the land, or in some body of water not directly connected with the sea, such as a lake or river. With the aid of the microscope, it is easy to discriminate volcanic material from the ordinary water-borne and wind-borne sediments and, in the case of the rocks which have solidified from the molten state, to distinguish those masses which have cooled upon the surface from those which have solidified deep within the earth.