7. Functional Tests.--Within the past few years much thought has been devoted to methods of more accurately ascertaining the functional efficiency of the kidneys, especially of one kidney when removal of the other is under consideration. The most promising of the methods which have been devised are cryoscopy, the methylene-blue test, and the phloridzin test. It is doubtful whether, except in experienced hands, these yield any more information than can be had from an intelligent consideration of the specific gravity and the twenty-four-hour quantity, together with a microscopic examination. They are most useful when the urines obtained from separate kidneys by segregation or ureteral catheterization are compared. The reader is referred to larger works upon urinalysis for details. _Cryoscopy_, determination of the freezing-point, depends upon the principle that the freezing-point of a fluid is depressed in proportion to the number of molecules in solution. To have any value, the freezing-point of the urine must be compared with that of the blood, since it is not so much the number of molecules contained in the urine as the number which the kidney has failed to carry off and has left in the blood, that indicates its insufficiency. {56} In the _methylene-blue test_ of Achard and Castaigne a solution of methylene-blue is injected intramuscularly, and the time of its appearance in the urine is noted. Normally, it appears in about thirty minutes. When delayed, renal "permeability" is supposed to be interfered with. The _phloridzin test_ consists in the hypodermic injection of a small quantity of phloridzin. This substance is transformed into glucose by the kidneys of healthy persons. In disease, this change is more or less interfered with, and the amount of glucose recoverable from the urine is taken as an index of the secretory power of the kidneys. In applying these tests for "permeability," "secretory ability," etc., one must remember that the conditions are abnormal, and that there is no evidence that the kidneys will behave with the products of metabolism as they do with the substances selected for the tests, and also that the tests throw unusual work upon the kidneys, which in some cases may be harmful. II. CHEMIC EXAMINATION A. NORMAL CONSTITUENTS The most important are chlorids, phosphates, sulphates including indican, urea, and uric acid. 1. Chlorids.--These are derived from the food, and are mainly in the form of sodium chlorid. The amount excreted normally is 10 to 15 grams in twenty-four hours. It is much affected by the diet.